u  ion   of 

. 

-are   i    - 

vorn   f'ir.    i  ...  .  specien 

"been   r  ;  in  v 

it    i;i    "  it,-  i/.iar  ..  it  can 

'."ecto   animals   in    the  for 

soun  tr  ie  a  , 

lac-re   vigorous  niuoion   of 

f   for*.     . 

r  ,,h,    taia&racJc   crv/-fly,    etc. 

ice   of   ?  I'crc 

Oil]  •        .       aw    in   the!    south 

,  .  mosquito    ;  ••-;".(. 

.•i-i,  ially   in   tjtio   1'a.r  nortir; 

.  north! 
. 

.Lil'v.. 

iterii  ,    j-e&o   irie 
Ion,       .... 

.    2         la   UG.._S  organic  ui  -vis 

'>t    02         .     .  -I    coils   all  rnuloii   i.s  ,    tntc-n, 

trr  d    ivith   inor;-j---nic  .  e   i«  n 

i  ur_  c  L  ii 

-    _    x.i   •     L-^uru    Lo.iiio;  oil    is    sel- 

.  uy   13   ijoinji   cm;    i/i&   ci^   6'ife-i   "i'^en   up,    ana 

&-ie0  les.t      ueli  better  ;  or  oh; 

.  if  io         .  .  .  ->er  for   tit.v, 

re  durable   ij.    u.uc  jiui-oh    u^-  t 
c;1  oico  than  in 

:                          rn   uf   rocJc  I    in    fche    soil. 

;    the  ;e  ^c:    i.i  and 

oxidation.    Also   formation^  of   ?icic-  r    aubaLances,    as 

.5    of    ',  •••cteria,    «rid   re..  -     .     .    r"bonic   acid   is   i  .    '.•  ueue   are 

,      m    arc  bctt^.1  i        .  ,    e/cupt  froat, 

n  effect  .                                              Influential  j  lortli,    ,»ock 
.•:    disi    t                                       .'icily    in    0.1*5    south    c-^oept-    in    certain   c.-  - 

r.    It    is    slow   in    dry   counori<;ts,    W.K   in  - 


10}  ^por-^-.ure    of    t.;-;    t.  ..r^iCi-os,    ieavoo,    (3tc., 

fcurfl       -      -  i  ,(of     one    aoii    wiUl    ioot:.:). 

s   wood   i  .  -ed  "by   warm   nir.      re   >t    cr-^.  .  .jn   in   tne 

^pcil   :nu-  ...  .  ]  -  tt    ta   b«    ac-Uiori- 

•.':.ks;    this    i'  incorrect    (hot    air;,    i^^cl.    in    w.iu   --inucr   is 

:  of   fro-      .         .    r;    in    very   low    t  ax-G    t  oe   bu-     - 

'jat    erne-  heril    ov 


Lly    trcje'.'    •i.c'o    inj  ,  c  -    c 

,     ..  rodaC'.   /    .    in-    -    1<  3,  on 

. 

••.3t3   inc  ioi  blurt,          -     use   of    the 

cti-;  ion   01  ...       jifiXcta  1't..  '-.    ..ith 

more 


i.    C1J       .  '  -or  of 

,  ftion   and   rel^iiv  -uity 

at 

__.    ;  :  :   condition  in  the  United  States  snd  Korth  America. 

1)  t  ion  in  the  uni  .       es  ii 

Q    inch*     .  r)  or   I  -^.th   of    the    .'t.    -unurence   una  <&&& 

in    river   rur.r    t'.ie   line   of   40".    To    the   north   and   north- 

i   30".      The   20H    line   runs  from   the 

;   the   various 

-^1   of  .  ^ific  od 

. 

of   r-  1    thru   tii-e   ye      .  .nry's 

• 
^j  >n   occ- 

.     tel      i  -  ity   indexes   both 

.1    vrliey    to    the    co-^tLi. 


j  .  iiorth^v^.A-ci:    tli  ere   is.??    small 

•ITO  portion   of  auri,. 

-,\    from   ;^y   to    3eptc-:ib--:r.    Tli€    relativ 
•  'ft  *vind   nnd   tlieroi'orc  fc^'/  tree    . 

cj  .  re  rains, 

iu   lov?,    i 

.    .....   •  -%6 

...  .  -aoiiuit 

-.rairi  .  -ort;    forest    (live   o'-^cs)    occurs   only  on 

.    . 


£)    ,  Liforni  t^  rc,-;iou  I    •>    §i«rraa  .    *i:c   pre- 

Xo\  ...  r    the    Ir-na   is    ccoleu. 

ity,    rand    t.-  tli  •        '  ••    f  n.irly  rt. 

. 

_^>  tfortl      'liforn.!--  to      ft.   Precipitation  occurs  dur- 

:y  north  of  Port:          .      rela- 
-t.  •  to:     J  to  treo  f,ro--. 

^              f  C>liforn.l-.  to        .  In  the  fsou-.-.ern  por- 

•   ••  .o  )f  the  .rniure  is  -. 

too  dry  for  ,     .    growth.  In  a  tue 

is  r-crr  -rr  .  r  prec  ..•;.',  t,  -3  1  ion 

',de;  t]  less  precipita- 

tion  an   ......                          -;  -•-•-•  result  is  a  heavy 

t  slo    ,       ^inery  On  ;         'at  side. 

^   .        or;  fr  to  .  riti-.-..li  Columbia.  The 

,    ,u  no  lo-vor  ti 

liforj  i  •  ^}ic 

•-.ide,  ai;:d  lov, 

.  Xhie  cr.   .    dense  ruixed  for  <-  side 

•iaivy  rains  nnd  exc;;  on, 

Of  \  .  :  .     iremenaoas 

flooc*    r  Dpe, 


:i«s,   Puetlo  to      out  .  .  J  reoipita- 


li  iRuiv 


•  .  ,    have  a 

I 
•j»t   sicie   and   slo^eo,  oat- 

,  ,     •  *y» 

.    •  •.. 


_  '  • 

of 

r  •.*!•••.•  ,u~ 

vo. 

~3>   i  '*"*.•  --.V- 

•ocially  of  mountain   cuu;,w.       .    As   a 
?;i'   iw  ^rccipit-'ition^    c  .-ill^   in   r-;.;iofie  of 

,.}.y  froa  year 

T   oon    i         L&!«   rai;i» 

it)3    ii>   ],racti- 
.;    to    t;t 

.      ;  uf. 
b3  :    it-  of  toil   facility  .  |    oi* 

1  ..:  I  .  . 

Of 

.t   fac  ,    .11    - 

,    •  .  u  ooi  ......  •. 


1}  ,  A  inciii^   i  in    io  ,          -'ih^;   the    t»-v 

,    fo  ..  ..-refit 


2;  wur«3>    lil;i":    tor  .:    ,  t 

I   i.-.   Uxtfu^t 

,       ...-.^uitc 
.  :  iryrnio    in 

•»nco  J  tV.    l.o^ 

(  in 

16  r    tl  .    .  ry  c).  i.  w  and 

.  ,.  :         •  .  .  . 

t  . 


3)  t--olBtur<  --^prodMction:    ea^i^r  i;i   vet   ri 

.....  ......  ,cv.  r- 

•i;  .    1'0'cli   i..*i*.u/  j.cial 

1          .  .  .  r,.  prudm.  &i«n 

. 

:  r&ticn:;: 

. 

.       -.jfy 
•  ,  - 

» 

for 


-  in  ury        ,  stnut.  u-ik  also 

onl.Y      r  lir       to 

too    r.'Miy   1'     v    3,    vlii  cii     ro  .la   t'tke    too  muc}i   v/atar.    uUiervise 
ondi  t  .  .     . 


4}   l-.olp.ture  host  one   ^ro*vth.    It    Ftiirair 

.    Keifiht    growth    nuff^rn   mo«t    in   a 
l£J*t     •'••  -.;•••.•  ]   tirr.ofi    the   vol  nv?    in   ". 

to  e     •  i.  o-tf  r-ite   of   gr1          .    Go  or.    .  vith 

. 

.  et  s  I  .  .       B  I  tua- 

,       crowns,  short  '  . 

jcrub  c         squite 

. 

-  •          founci  only  in  huiMo  -Ji  ;.;tricte. 


6}  ;-'3    inc.:  r      --      •IQ.  favors 

rt^iit  .  i'ftve   no   tolermit    s^enios^    in   dry   retiic:.s. 

.  oiKt  in  volume    -ic-r   ?vcro. 


f'cei 

1st   localitd  A      t.   not   neceesari- 

.    o?t   junipers   in   o-l  r.  :-.  tenet?    v?-  r?    in  ^.   Nevada 

•   L-   . 

it    forest  ijoco    i.;u^.lity   of  r.       In 

cleannef-B    it   .r,'»y   oe    s^ici    t/:?rt    only   a   moist    co  ;utry 
•  Lai.    In   rc(';"n,rd   tc   f  ine--.*r-i.  I   rnd 

dry   localities    oft^n    nj-oo.acc    r    fine    qur.lity   of  rr.ater- 

:  •  ••         o"bt^T       i       cli- 

:-/«n  in  t      ^e  locality.  In  dry  localities  tJit      le,ss 
i  in  wet  placer,  but  t    .          the  hardest  as  w-.-ll  se 
)ocib.  A  veTy  oo.lo  clisi^te  does  not  :-.;.iv'wi  specie;!  .)f  ru 
cod  Irrch  is  c     ;ed  in  the       AI  ;o. 


9)  •'-*•'     rc'-'-ices  fro?t    d.in/'cr.    "ois>t    r 

dry  r-r.^ion?.    Ice   normally  liurtn   tree    .  .  nerally 

11  ^    injure  i*   i'crcst    trees,    and    cnus^  ^ive 

. 

10}    koieture   r,ff£/cts   le-vres,    brus^,    ct    .  e 

^ees   t  .    Jt    often  f  vcds,  -il   of 

lifornia,  .  -.     relntive   harfiidity  I'lorc    ti 

.     ,       g  3  -illy   dry    foront 

oisture    helps   fiuigi,    a^aay  and   disease.    %/ot    tlie    sun 
'.    is   t:  •  arc   1  in 

.    There   are  more   defects   in  wet    Ian  a  fore-    t,     rut   more    tiiuber. 


11)    'roirjtur        ...    aniraal   troublen.    '/o^ernll/  ins  .utn   and 
..les   nr(j    lerjo    senoiio    in  v'/t,    t:;r.n    i-.    ivry  format  3.    --ry    i,j.tua- 

ins'iCts,    an    there   nr«?   fer/er   oner  f    insect  a.    In 

7      ,    mointure   in   riot    '.-..=?   etr,-  .          vr   r; 

<  i  o    . 


12)   moisture   ftTfecta   ^::j"l.    Prccir  :  o- 

,     l--cr  |  lly 

in         •:.:;.     -  nic    --and    ir  terini    .  :'ici-'l 


>n 
; 

.    In  cold  districts  he-.vy   precipi  -, 

.'   ,  ,  i  hinders  or  .11   li 

It    t  .r   condition,    or  at  -    to   low  ao^gy 


c.  "aisturs  conditions?        ted  b^  the  forest. 

ce  of 

,    or   i'    :.-•-  .liiv-vinouB 

increano  of  ov  lion  duo  to  t:-     .'.ration  is 

,  •            .  >  •-•  U.MC  for- 

n  old  one  r-nd  a 

,1  an   o                 .  reforo  t:  •   .                                   »     -ion 

;                       ion   to  t;.              ^nt   or  Koliir.e   of   vood  foria- 

.     .           •  .                   Ill    tr»i:                 ,,re 
. 

'.  r  ;^  .  _-J_^_  i^Ji  itaelf   i_a  nt'ilurl-illff  legs.gn« 
io   i:-  .port-nt,    but    is  not   often   cl  reu.    It 

.  ..  . 

4;  7V*e  fcrc-.t  r        -ir  ci.rcul-  li,  ,   /crc  io  less 
away  of  f<-  foro  the  r  xty  is 

. 


^trol'-tic: 

ji-jurlly  less  frozen  ij:  the  lorcct  tii- 
-  often  hi*;. 


\  -now   :  .  t   for  -id    t/u 

in   effect   is   duo   to   she      ,    lack   -1 

,       -  c, 

7]   ?r.  .  ion  f r 

This  Leaves,   tox  , 

«l    uf     ,  1    for     ..  .  •     ;    .     "  .     '        .'  rti  nt 

'  -  •  • 

ntuff      .  .  •:. .  in  g«t* 

t  off »  Den 

e    {^ro  *nd      ..       olctin^   il    L:*:ia   '-o    the  li? 
:. nlly   nyr'jc  tore 

I     ',.-.;.  , 

. 

4. 

foT( 

.  '  •  »  ^8 

. 

,1     lllC  t       -  '-  -       '••'•*• 

•  .  '  , 

£.    Alon  .  -iy  fri.  to    ^ 

,,    cole  but  '  .  ^   in  our 

ion    -  . 

.    , 


v;y    gout  :'requ  , 

0ft  ,  .  ,outh    i'r  .    .LUIS    i. 

..  w    01'    p,tor..;«    in    one    unites     It  .    I  I      .       Hy  woe 


>j.  I  aumin'T  monsoons  }    are    common    ii-; 

the   uuif    o-  -^co    to    Arizo/i'-'  olor»uo  .  ^   winds    co, 

heavy  ,  and  norih- 

,  ,       corny,    oft  era 

, 

.        ,  i  tjie    "norther^ 

old   winds   r>receaec,  ilt  .      .       ,ey 

3    trie    cr,  tt 


c.  hyt    occur   in   the 

;s  from 

.    ,  .  .       -on    the   pl-->  j      re 

•;     •  '-  •    •      uold    ( 

.     "  ^ir   r-'oviujj   c^pwn, 

r  'f  ore         *j         in   t  .  r   ?>.IRO    in   tiie 

-n   current,  .    is 

^fteri  sever  .  iary  thaws*  IM  „    ••>&   si 

. 

'.1C     C  ,') 

t};e  i  ii*uc 

orju».     fh«  :  ctron.  , 

•uinein^  iiigi-i  rc-ln  tive  }iu/{i:.c.'-i  t.y  ,    and 

:;  act     t.  t,. 

overe    stt 
p,re    fo..ina    in    the   Gulf    states,  in    su 

ir   on   n    .  dependent    on 

oriR.    A  hurricane   ir  .rai^it^atm;  .  .ocity 

01    ov  ous. 


.3   1^5 
111  ^o 

. 


rcnv  . 

v/inue 


',    cxt^n 
.  -, 


.>rtmve;3i  c   coai          •      -  'their   crlrr.s, 

!•"  nt   a   time.  •    :     -  .e    traffic 

. 

3)    In    nil   rrountnins   rll  -e  wore   or  in    air- 

oottion,    oit;ier   up   or   down   t-ie  mountain,    or   up   of   d  .79.    All 

Lor        •  ,  •  •  :     •       -"inc.    i  .        !ip,    ir.   notice- 

;urric  c-ui    occrjr    °n,v  ,       s;eciili.y    - 

c>:D-'Mun   in   t.ne  inert    stormy    p-irts   of 

try,    or    trie   scorm   cent          .       corny   T'i  rse    in  ni^iier 

inyaa    inor'  ;  -SOUL  .   .  ,          .  .? 


o  ts»   of   v-i  Jiu    0:1   for  •    : 

I    :?    soil,    plant  :  r  . 

i    firyi:  in    c,ir;  .•:  , 

id   oven   in   t  . 

.1'ic   coa    t,    th<  '-3  bri.  nd    i'lcrc-'K.  relative 


t  .  ....  rid  f ru i  t    w~' 

-  , 

Ln  86  t  f  dryin  -  ~  • 

in  reduced   the   evr.porr.tion   to 

tuiil   i  .     ...  cn 

-  uo-.ir,    ju^t  ordina:  i      .    A  fc 

r  Lt  tc     /    ,    or  33,  . 

,  in    liOt     tl-:n    jr:     CO 


__.  .  ....   ol     Ui£   v;inus    (;  LI  ij.^    on 

driven   the    \  -  plains.    Thus 

f^ii  ;  ; 

t. 


^y/      A  .  >   composition,  '         ;•  « 

•jfluct,    vith  a 
reduce    the    cc 
thic    •  r  marked   int 


and    U;e 

by    Li,.iCjr. 


prouacc;    croo..       ,    f;nnrly,    iir.otu,/.  1   ana 

..-ptio  .....  I   gro 

.    3 

n.-t.,ao  l  j-  i-  j     •  •  -  •  iUS    "^° 

. 


uO\;r.,          ...  oyfl    ti  hind' 

*r   inport'Jit    (  ,iona    in    tiic   i'ore./-,     sspeci     ... 

i    repa 


10,      -.  --   ^^iu.    out     IQ©<5   wa          cvcni>,  ^  j  .   o:    .:-..odli-i 

.  . 

Leuo    than   it 

.     r  t  '<-    i'orcf     . 

drift  .     '  •  ...  ..    it    up  in 

tr;  .....     >  -  -•    Then 

roia  it        i  ad   runs  away   -.^ 

• 


lj  ;    ..iiiC.  /;=utii"  ui.  b   tret;  c.,             in  the   a                 ••           /is    Uie   v/ 

,                     .  U3       .Ly    on    ._ouu    Bites.     *:ii£    sstrj.  .. 

_.                              .  o  .L  ,    •  y   fungi    itt    -r;;    plttcea    -ire 

.  .  . 

.  ilty   in  :.-        .rotectiu.i.    i  rairie 

3   up«    un- 

it  r<  .  .  -•    . 


nor  c: 

1;  ie  n<  tor  :         .  ...  .  ruin 

,  ;  ,  orutsl  :Ji, 

,  ffec'. 

into^ 

nd    direct   li*rht. 

.     '  cl 


Be  lint;   bctt. 
or.e. 
red  fit   c  -ont   lotitucr    ,    att 

level  for  rr     ce. 

Lntit,        to  6ou: 
:  -t. 


•    30'     :    500  unit    . 

:  ".      ftrov.-fi   lu GO   to      , 


t.    30°    : 

«      « 

.,      „  . 

; 

•  - 

•d   ligfct  rt-Tit 

.  *   is  i  ore 

b   nt«      -          ol  h; 

crow/i.Mf    ihiuk   w . 
,  ,    Colored 


or,   fa 

.   of 

l8    trcr..  -U't    i.c  .  .  I 

t  f  or    ahotc  -    .    '  ach 

no    ai\.     . 


4)  to 

.......  .  .:iC 

w  .    ili      .•  ry 

vv:...^.....   piii  »    Tri 

jly  '  iA    clilw-1  ,  ,    v_  vC  . 


1  1  e  c  I 
tat        ,      oil,    -  ,  tr 

A        M 

. 

. 
•          .         , 

. 

:  t         JL  11 

>f  lii^it  111  .  i'- 

-  er, 

. 
u   -Jiie  n 


jos  normal 


- ' 

,__j32^^t^-  .  inus, 

Jiis   lir 

.un  the  working 

.         -: 

b. 

,    ince>.  ,  , 

, 

I    10-1  ';f    or 

> 

p 

4.          ^  •  f\  ^*         "' 

W  ^ 


. 

,     :  ..       1  ''  11    li  : 

diff  .        r  the   li,^it   ia 

of   t>.e  :    little   in 

,  .        .    red  i'ir, 

nor  "°»  as*J 

' 

.1  y ;    t-(  -  •- 

ciiff  • 
is   io    Lol.r- 


1  r-rrnco                r.   viit-  .                                             ;-    toi 

350   unitP   of    i  .                                  unit.-. 

ce,  buv  the  01             •      . 

.1   cov  .;rtional   to 

. 

itli   tolorpnce   r.t~tictien   ft  1  way  lati 

,     i.mi    .  - 

,  -    »  • 

rnnce    13    Incr-  -  not,    t 

•iunt   of  t." 

, 

In  oo    Hil  it      \;  be 

'.'ir    is  nno.t    into?  .r. 

, 

ct(jr  of    ."oil. 


JL 

:      jt  .  creet- 

ry.    All*  •  -  tc 

11,0'' 

:  . 


92. 


c   In  no  at  countries  coils  vary  in  "'ide  limits  even  on  no  small 
n's  40  acre  lot*,  i-evcral  kinds  of  soil  may  be  on        :  lands. 
-•oil  quality  -ind  kind  is  rcfl      by  th        -  therton,  especially  in 
force'          iculnrly  i"  r.oiuit^in  country. 


3.  ln  i  .....  ->rtions  of  the  land  surface  of  the  northern  hemi- 
sphere "soils  I          oved  by  -lacier:-,  ice,  -vine  <md  \vr.t  wr. 
therefore  large  portions  of  land  arc  deficient  in  soils,  bare  rock 

ft  by  th     ciers,  or  nt  lei  soil  depths.  Slit  condi- 

tion may  be  Men  near       .   t,her  places,  on  the  contrary,  may  have 
/y  deposits  o:     .*ier  a        over  the  re-;ul?xr  soils. 

•mter  transport  v?.j.3t  quantities  of  soil,  particularly 
fcch  cov      11  oy  lands,  "inds  especially  are  important  in  aria 
semi-arid  inr.da  and  in  coast  regions.  Wind  can  often  cover  the  land 
with  t  idly,      ially  on  railroad  lines  in  fills  and  cuts 

in  the  ec  -   • 

.cli  of      follows  is  a  part  of  a  Review  of  Soil  frow  the 

Forester's  3  1':  rid-point. 

In  roost  of  our  land  the  soils  are  still  in  place  and  are  called 
aedent-r,  soils,  bi  ce  on  the  underlying  rock.  The  quality  of 
the  soils  depends  on  the  kind  of  rock  which  produces  tfcem.  Uock, 

^  )  •  f 

n  how  to  make  soil  maps  and  soil  reports  from  the  Bureau  or 

.t  of  Agriculture.  Vhcy  have  made  aoil  mnpa  for  about 

e~\-          '-  • 

"-)  ^iotril-ution  of  the  Great  Soil  Areas  in  the  United  :;tntes  and 

'a.  ].abrador,   uebec  nnd  the  Maritime  I  rovinces,  part  of  -ew  jfing- 
"**  ntario:  this  is  a  glaciated  &4ft&  area  from  *iich  the  soils 
iy  been  removed,  leaving  bare  rock,  or  thin  soils  on  level 
-I  elevated  ground,  filling  depressions  -with  noils  of 
characters  fro?^  coarse  sand  to  clay. 


b.  South  along  the  sea  coast  from  new  Jersey  to  Texas:  this  is  a 
va-     ~a  of  sandy  lands  crossed  by  river  bottoms  and  Interrupted  by 

B.  The  river  bottoms  have  rich  alluvial  soil.  The  sands  are  mostly 
poor  sands.  :hia  area  include?  the  Southern  pinery. 

c.  North  of  the  Southern  pine  sands:  a  lr>     i-ea  of  soila  in 
pi-    mostly  loam,  clay  and  limestone  areas.  This  includes  the  Appalo 

.3  and  the  Centra,!  i!ardwood».  Nearly  -til  the  river  valley  a  nre  in 
bottv.     .do  with  deep  alluvial  soils, 

d  North  of  the  Central  Hardwoods  region  of  £.  :  a  large  area 

icial  drift  v^iere  ice  and  vr.-tcr  h--»ve  arr-      the  mater- 
isually  in  deep  layers.  It  is  a  large  area,  in 

•»lly  lands  uouaily  predominate!  often  the  heaviest  Imi4fi  occupy, 
not  the  bottoino,  but  the  rid,:;  B.  It  is  quite  a  contrast  to  the  ;>outham 
ids.    L  Jack  pii  glaciated  l^nda.  ^rids  o.re  usually  poor 

ions,  as  they  leach  readily.  They  may  reach  depths  of  200 
feet  or  -'ore. 


93« 


£.    The  .is   country:      h-?re  ?*re  for  the  EH  ~t  fine 

lands,    ^.cc  ,;•  ..uln.ted          _  __^ui   and   wfit       .       robably  much   of    the   effect 

•.iridfj  '  .ru    ail  If  ting,    ;  ui   v/-tor  influenced    the    ''rran^orucut   of 

soils.  .-5   fro  iy  flocculated,    lii;e  of  bre      .    .j.c 

chfcftf   fc  .n   is   loams   and    cl-v/^,    --i  th  h.  id    there   sands.    ..'ere   come 

the   sana  iiille   of   r.ebrasica.    Alknli    l-rnda   occur   in   restrict  .rtions   of 

•  ;    c  tea   are   conspicuous,    and   the   land   IB  poor  for 


£.  .rid  I?nidf3  of  fc       t,  west:  these  are  very  variable  in 
aeter,  f'rc   the  cu^.Eoest  3     ->f  Uie  northwest  to  the  finest  and  heav- 
iest cl^ye  (adobe  clays)  of  t)ie  south^e.'jt  .  Uniformly,  tlie  soils  are 

:  on  restrict      -a  occur  alkali  ooils,  as  in  the  Bad 


&.  :>oils  of  t    nuntaina  of  the  went:  In  t.     rras^  Cascades, 
and  ^ockies  the  soils  are  extremely  variable,  ranging  froni  newly  disin- 

ic  mat      in  sand,  to  Uie  very  "best  of  clay  and 
land. 


h.     •  the  liiijaid  and  arid  far  Northwest:  (  N.  ual.  to 

)  :  there  i3  iiere  a  lar^e  slieet  of  erupted  rock*  It  is  a  basalt 
country,  and  a  territory  of  deep  soils  and  fertile  lands,  a  good  coun- 
try. .  i^inte^r*-  1  lor;  of  soils  is  the  main  feature. 

On  U     .t  arid  side  the  soils  are  relatively  little  disturbed. 

Ins  ana  on  the  coa^t  plains  the  soils  have  been  greatly 
diaturbc          and  ice.  The  soil  has  been  much  washed  by  rainfall. 

C).  noil  affects  the  Character  of  Forests, 

su  'Die  ."Southern  pinery  is  entirely  a  soil  forest  both  in  regard 
to      mory  proper,  ,f\nd  the  bottoro  and  swnmp  lands. 

]}.  Vue  raixture  of  scrub  pine,  shortlenf  pine  and  hardwoods  is 
,  not  by  climate,  but  by  soil.  This  occurs  just  north  of  the 
ry,  in  the  hardwoods  re  ;icn. 

£.  i.iraestone  soils  have  given  us  Juniper  stande  in  Tennessee. 

Tlie     '9  also  af  fee  ted  the  forest  growth  of  a  largo  part  of  r..eatucky. 

jd.  Sand  soils  produce  the  pinery  of  the  Great  Ltakes  country;  a 
of  dry  -ind  sand  gives  belt»  ~ri;-  inlands  of  hardwoods  forest. 
It  is  soil  T«iiich  detcrmiMea  by  itr,  character  and  moiisture  the  t.^iaarack 
'.wnn^po  nnc4.  even  oetwraten  tliese  two. 

1  modifieo  the  pinery,  changing  it  from  a  mixed  f  or  r  t  of 
poMorway  pineo  to  Jac):  pine;  soil  rnd  soil  moisture  are  the  potent 
influences  in  the  composition  of  hardwood  foreata. 

e_.  ;r\nds  produce  the  croeB-tirabers  of  Texas  in  the  widut  of 
--irie  (aloo  in  OklaJ\ona),  ^,nd  roper,  1  9  the  same  thing  in  Wisconsin, 
Minnesota,  and  the  North. 

£.  :iolls  have  but  little  affected  the  forests  of  tlie  Greo.t  ./eat, 
3n  th»  clin^t-  i      c)iief  In  .  -.or,  producing  «.nd  dif  f  .-r- 

enti-tiii..;  for.-  1  3.  3oil  may  influence  quality  aorue-v;hat. 

^.  Viewing  soil  moisture  independently  of  climate,  w©  niay  say 
.  I   k  of  foreat  is  due  to  soil  moisture,  but  it  is  better  to  say 


94. 


i.  this  is  uuc-  to 
••;,  clirar  . 

effect  is  shown  by 
aa  on  the 


climate  r-          soil.  Irrigation  cor.ou  in  hen 
iture  •  .   -ice  versa. 
cottonwood  in 

i  . 


Th~t  soil  does  have 


vadi 


tho 


D)  Relation  of  '/nrious  noils  to  Tree  Growth  W     ;ricultur  . 

a..  Good  no  lot  loam  lands  I     ood  for  raising  all  the  species 

.ro'nr  i      :   :i  f-li1  i   .  Timber      ood  growth  and  reproduc- 
tion. Vitli  -  >;ocd  cli^nte  nnd  favorable  topography  such  lands  are  nor- 

ly  a^ricul:        .       .in  nature  they  are  stocked  with  hardwoods 
until  an  aver        iy  temperature  below  ^'0°  F,  is  reached,  vhen  they 
,o  conifer,  -,,  in  the  nort 

JD.  j'eavy  olnys.iro  hard  for  tl.e  farmer  to  handle;  they  are 
stron  ;  and  endure.  I'uch  organic  fertilizer  is  requirea  to  keep  them 

.  :hoy  ar-.-'  fair  for  forent.  Hardwoods  gro',v  readily  oven  on  Uie 
hardest  of  cl«ys,  especially  in  Michigan  and  Ohio.  But  these  lands  us- 

.•i  cultural 


£.  Lean  clays^  which  arc  derivative  of  shales,  occur  in  iJ 

Carolina,  arid  luiv-:  a  fair  growth  of  hardwoods,  but  often 
o  a  ocrub  ^ro^fth  '  sc  .        and  usually  to  a  mixture  of  liardwoode 

ny  nre  nor  really  clay  lands,  but  are  soils  in  which 
r  si  1  t;i  predominate  and  are  really  aificient  in  true  clay. 

&.  "-ands  tend  to  pine.  The  coarser  and  leaner  of  ther-e  sands  are 

ed  with  scrub  pi     ;id  other  forms  of  ho.rd  pinen.  unly 
oak  ir.  tiitj  United  otates  coiapetcg  aa  a  scrub  on  these  snndy  lands.  They 
arc        ri  cultural  lands  unless  the  climate  and  markets  make  certain 
as  po.      ,  as  intensive  work  for  certain  induatrien.  They  are 
largely  forcot  lands.  In  arid  districts  the  sands  are  not  poor,  but  are 
.  ch  chc,:dcally,  bee     of  the  Irxck  of  moisture  to  iSRCh  the 
a  of  the  soil;  irrigation  trniasfornis  tliese  sands  to  fertile 
soi  ;  . 

£.  Very  dry  soils  raay  be  either  poor  sands,  as  in  humid  country, 
or  ari4?  lands  in  dry  country  of  deficient  rainfall. 

£.  Swamps,  or  -et  soils  furnish  a  variety  of  conditions: 

1)  Good  clny  or  oilt  soils,  the  boat  of  agricultural  lands, 
often  stocked  with  normally  big  timber,  largely  hardwoods.  Only  in  ex- 

ve  cases  do  they  tend  to  conjf-  x,  -/liidi  then  are  cypress,  ced«r,etc 

2)  Jluck  soils,  containing  a  jnodornte  Amount  of  inor^nic  con- 
stituents, arid  stocked  with  hardwoode.  If  organic  material  predominates 

;s  these  soils  tend  to  pent;  the  h.'irdv/ocda  recede  and  cedar, 
•id  spruce  coino  in,  in  the  United  States.  In  the  ,  lu  v/orld 
.  ne  roplacos  t     .-k,  ^itJi  "birch. 

U)  History  and  Literature  of  ^oils  and  Soil  Vtudy. 

idy  ;.  follov/ing  topics: 

a.  '.hat  soils  are  made  of. 

b.  How  they  ars  made. 

£.  uoil  characters  and  qualities:  chemistry,  pliycics,  biology, 
fertility,  arrangeioent  and  topography. 
d.  3oil  cover.  Forest  cover. 


£.  Sands,  7her  variation  in  sandy  lands;  narmally  they 

are  free  fror>  larger  stoneo.  Pefore  t2ivi>u5  analyses  of  some  sandy  ooils 

>•  veil  to  say  a  "?ord  n.~:  LO  the  oi~e  of  the.      idea  (textur 
of  these  vnriouu  mat     I.  Coacae  ^rit  is  1-3  torn*  in  •:     .er;  ordi- 
nary sand  is  0,1-1  BM  or  100-1000  microns;  ailt  is  0.01-0.1  nsm  or  10- 
100  microns;  Band  ia  100-1000  microns.  The  best  known  classification  is 
tint  of  the  -..'nil.  reau  oi  ".oils,  as  follov?a: 

Fine  gravel         2,000-1.000  millimeters  (mi.} 

'Joarae   sand   (a)  1.  000-0.  b'OO  im, 

'liugi   sand   jbj  OoOC-0.^0  ram. 

110   sand        (c)  0,2^'O-O.IQO  mm. 

I'ine   sand   (d)      0.  100-0.  O^'O  m;   . 

It  0.0r;o-0.005  rnm. 

0,005-0,000  QU. 


A  classification  given  by  i  rof  eseor  iiot)i  i8  ae  follows: 
•it  ft.  0-3,  00  ram. 

id  (a)            O.J-1.0'. 

id  (b)               0.3   EBB. 

;d  (c)           0.1^-0.16  n  . 

It  (a)               0.0?  mra. 

It  (b)  (qunrtz)       0.01  j$eu 
Clay                  ---- 

is  latter  classification  is  the  on«  referred  to  in  the  follow- 
ing samples  of  aoils  from  the  ikmthorn  pinery     on: 

Sample  1:  t;rit  7;  ;  sands:  a)  lr/;:,  b)19^t  c)10/  ;  silt  35^;  clay 

;t  sand 

In  icaking  these  sample  analyses  they  used  sieves  for  the  fine 
particles,  and  water  for  clay.  The  particles  are  classified  by  the 

y  take  to  fall  t'aru  a  certain  distance  in  tlie  water.  Dumrnlng  up 
sample,  we  notice  that  the  Bands  form  57;.",  silt  35/  f  and  clay  L  . 


2:  grit  3/  ;  sands:  7/  »  3;  ,  ^/  ,  ^-'»  silt  69,;  clay  E  . 

Sample  3:  grit  4^.f;  aands:  0.8;  ,  O;.,  6/  ,  4>.;  silt  69;  ;  clay  4  . 

7e  have  had  much  sand  and  little  clay.  Finer  sands  vary 

much  in  wide  limits  even  in  the  sr*mo  neighborhood,  silt  or  quartz  varye 
to  70..  . 

In  making  the  analyses  the  grit  io  sifted  thru  different  sized 
raeahea  to  separate  it.  Clay  settles  in  water  about  i>  iuchea  per  day. 

^d.  Loam  soils.  Loain  is  a  combination  of  sand  and  ci?;y. 
Saraplea:         1 

.nd         1'j/  A/ 

Silt  (fine)  6Z/  62;  W 

Silt  (coaraeryBx  I// 

Clay         IO/  17>^  1 

The  clay  here  forma  about  10-  20^  of  tlie  loam.  Silt  preaoininatea. 

S..  Clay  soils.  'Die  following  is^an  average  of  several  clays: 
Clay  proper  forma  2^-- 
3ilt  "    24-3; 

nd          "    1- 

Oxidee  (hurnua)**      tterin^*  KeO,  etc. 

even  in  clay  soil,  the  clay  doen  not  form  tlto  bulk  of  the 
soil. 


97. 


£.  I-er  cent  of  clay  in  various  soils. 

Generally  we  can  say  th*.-.t  clay  forms,  in; 

ry  sandy  soil,  about  1-3- 
Ordinary  sand         3"1^/ 
loom          10-1  1//'. 
Clay  loam  15-25/ 

'-I'  .     Is  2i>-3. 

heavy  clays          35*4  5/.< 

v*;ry  lev  soils  in  I  over  J>0/  .  '*'he 

lass  than  30;  of  clay.  Heavy  adobe  clays 

of  the                      .  lands  of  'yoming,  Kan- 

s  and  Texas  arc  very  hoAvy  clays;  they  look  loke  organic  matter  and 

Lu.  ,  ,   *t  arc  ro-'.lly  clay. 

;_.  •  oinuB  content  of  v?rrio^     ID. 

.11  the  organic  matter  in  the  soil,  t'ost  soils  con- 

'.n  soruc  organic  jaat  oriels,  In  clay  lands  a  larger  amount  of  humus  is 
required  to  produce  any  effect  than  in  sand  land,  In  clay  land  there 

.us;  s:\ndc  ar-...-  ,;oud  with  lialf  t.l     .ourt 

or  l-3/'«  A  ci     11  can,      or,  take  care  of  as  much  aa  10-1^  of 
•       Jiout     :  Eiuck;  8/  of  hu.     --Jces  t    I  mucic  soil.  ?ree» 
sk  suffer  on  ov^-r  1^  of  muck,  therefore  pe^t  soils  do  riot  raise  good  trees 
kl.P«at  f-.icl  may  cc       ,,,  or  less  of  organic  material* 

ju  iiust  soils. 

jnt  soils  are  very  interesting  to  t)ie  forester.  Such  are  the 
3  and  putty  soils  of  the  .loath,  and  30  e  of  tiie  ;jl-;?cial 

...  They  are  regular  milky  rivers,  formed  from  the  finest 
;e  soils  are  lar.je  aiiiOjnt  of  vor^;  uniform  fine  silt  forming 
ervious  eoil,  due  to  the  property  it  possesses  of  pack- 
iiiij  i     or  into  a  very  coherent  inasa  on  account  of  the  fineness  and 
unif  c  .      of  the  particles.  Cypress  ponds  of  the  south  with  cypress 

are  due  to  t          of  t*=   I  ..*o  uniform  silt  pr  event- 
running  of  water, 


.e  following  of  a  putty  soil  is  given  from  Hilgard 


Soil  separates  ^iam. 

Sand  0.1- 0.1>  44  *  characteristic 

silt  («)  0.070         7 

"   (b)  0.050 

•  (c)  0.036       b.5 

»   (a)  0,025          0  this 

11   (e)  0.016  18  -*odd  thing  in  soil 
Clay  7-5 


The»?e  duRt  or  putty  soile  behave  very  ciuch  like  heavy  clay,  tho 
7  contain  t'sunh  n^nd  wnd  little  clay.  Iliey  aro  very  aifficult  to  plow, 
y  become  impervious  in  spite  of  tillage,  and  act  like  putty.  If  till- 
;>ecome  like  extremeiy  )in.rd  clods.  They  occur  often  in  pine  lands 
and  ai-v  very  rich  in  t)\e  finer 


Kardpan  in  California  and  otlier  places  underlies  snnay  loams. 
Tni?  ImrdpB.ri  oet«  ircperviou^  to  water,  nnd  when  dry  is  as  hard  as  a 
rock.  It  is  rich  in  the  finest  silts,  and  lacks  clay.  An  analysis  of  a 
haroonn  is  ^iven  at  the  top  of  tho  next  p^   . 


Analysis  of  a  hardpan:  Cal.: 
Sand       37 A 
Silt  (a)    30 
Silt  (e)    14 
Clay        8 

Dust  soils  are  much  ground  up  and  worked  over  by  shifting  v/inds 
and  is  worn  very  fine.  It  causes  much  trouble  to  irrigatorn  in  Washing- 
ton thru  its  tendency  to  suddenly  become  impervious.  Dust  soils  are 
peculiar  and  interesting  soils.  They  contain  a  relatively  large  amount 
&&&&&  of  very  fine  silt  which  is  all  of  a  size,  and  layers  very  close- 
ly. Hilgard  suggests  that  the  small  amount  of  clay  which  is  present  acts 
somewhat  like  the  linseed  oil  in  putty. 

j[.   Iron  rust  sands  arid  other  Hardpans. 

The  true  iron  rust  and  other  hardpans  are  of  a  different  ori- 
gin from  the  above  hardpans.  They  occur  on  the  northern  German  plains 
and  in  the  Baltic  region.  There  is  usually  a  bed  of  coarse  sand;  under- 
neath thin  a.t  a  depth  of  2  to  3  feet  is  a  layer  of  hard  rusty  material. 
Humic  acid  gets  down  and  form  hard  layers  by  acting  as  a  glueing  cement 
which  cements1  together  the  particles,  making  a  hard  compound.  It  occurs 
in  cold  countries  and  is  best  in  damp  climates;  the  upper  soil  bleaches 
to  a  lead  s-md,  and  all  of  it  is  thoroly  worthless  and  useless.  It  is 
hard  to  reforest  on,  and  is  a  great  obstacle  to  the  forer-ter.  To  get 
rid  of  this  hardpan  tremendous  steam  plows  are  used  in  Europe,  with  a 
double  engine  on  each  side  of  the  plow.  It  breaks  up  the  hardpan,  but 
if  the  action  is  not  repealed  the  hardpan  glues  together  again  in  a  few 
years. 

G)  Composition  of  Soils 

is  the  soil  made  of?  "3iat  are  its  consituents? 

si.  Composition  of  the  earth's  crust  in  general 

The  earth  is  estimated  to  be  composed  of  :   7%  air  and  water 

93^  solid. 

The  cruot  at  a  point  six  miles  down  is  supposed  to  be  about  as 
follows: 

5Q/5  0.  It  has  also  been  estimated  that  the  crust 

27   Si          in  this  six  miles  is  composed  as  follows: 

5.5  ye  15 

4   Ca  6  Fe  oxides 

4  MgO 

5  CaQ 

I>.  Principal  minerals  in  the  soil: 

1)  quartz:  forms  practically  all  of  our  sands,  the  larger  part 
of  our  silts,  and  in  the  form  of  a  fine  flour  (very  fine  silt)  makes 
materials  closely  resembling  clay.  Quartz  is  very  constant  in  soil,  and 
is  not  affected  by  weathering:  it  is  persistent  and  uniform.  In  the 
form  of  Bind  «nd  silt  it  forms  the  principal  body  of  soils  and  of  sands, 

and  olays. 

2)  Feldspar:  there  are  two  varieties  of  feldspar: 

Orthoclase:  potash, good  for  soil;monoclinic. 
Plagioclase:  soda  (lime);  triclinic. 
Potash  feldspars  are  the  most  common,  but  are  none  too  resistant 


99. 


to  weathering.  They  decompose  gradually,  a  pure  potash  (K)  feldspar 
will  weather  in  place  and  change  to  kaolin,  which  is  more  like  chalk 
than  clny. 

Clay  is  a  remarkable  substance;  there  is  nothing  just  like  it. 
Kaolin  when  pulverised  vill,  with  the  addition  of  water,  form  clay. 
Clay  in  fresh  water  does  not  settle  easily.  Clay  in  a  fresh  water  river 
may  strike  the  salt  water  of  the  ocean,  and  then  it  precipitates  like 
the  curdling  of  rrdlk  (f  locculation)  .  It  joijjs  together  in  flakes  or 
crumb  a.  Two  phases  of  f  locculation  may  be  expressed  thus: 
1)  Clay  s*4zes  silt  particles  nnd  incrustif  them; 
2}  It  joins  two  particles  of  clay  together. 

iie  above  action  of  clay  frequantly  takes  i  lace  in  the  Mississi- 
ppi River  in  the  south. 

Here  also  are  rnud  banks  penetrated  by  steamer  channels.  They 
really  are  clay  banks  with  variable  amounts  of  silt  from  the  river.  If 
pressure  be  added  they  form  shale;  add  water  and  he?>t  and  this  produces 
a  metamorphosis  to  hard  bare  rock  back  to  feldspar  (?).  (Quartz,  mica, 
silicates  of  (  Al)  ,f  eldspar.and  back  again,  etc.) 

3)  Hornblende  and  pyroxenes:  hornblende  represents  the  amphi- 
boles,  augite  represents  the  pyroxenes.  They  are  silicates  of  Mg  with 
also  CaO,  Pe,  and  Al.  present. 

There  ^ro  t  •>••  o  types  of  these  minerals  one  being  rich  in  Al,  the 
other  being  poor  in  Al  .  The  black  color  is  due  to  Pe  and  therefore  they 
ther  readily  with  water  and  air,  as  the  iron  oxidizes.  Thus  the  soil 
recruit;  it;->  If  with  minerals  from  the  decomposition  of  rocks. 

Those  minerals  give  color  to  soils.  They  are  generally  associa- 
ted with  quartz  and  feldsoar  . 

4)  I'icas:  micas  occur  in  granites,  especially  gneisses  and 
schist  o,  in  which  latter  they  are  the  most  abundant.  Mica  and  quartz 
form  most  of  the  schists.  Micas  do  very  little  for  our  soils;  they 
occur  in  connection  with  quartz,  and  therefore  a  poor  soil  may  be  due 

to  *  $&&&  coarse  quartzite. 

5)  Zeolites:  are  silicates  containing  water  (hydrous  sili- 
cr-tes),  and  are  secondary  forms.  They  may  be  spoken  of  as  the  original 
rocks  in  process  of  decompositions.  They  occur  everywhere  with  decom- 
posing feldspars.  Zeolites  are  very  important  because  they  prevent 
leaching  of  salts  in  the  soil;  they  readily  remove  bases  with  the  sub- 
stitution of  other  bases,  and  aince  they  are  rather  easily  soluble  in 
strong  mineral  acids,  the  bases  so  combined  are  more  readily  available 
to  plants  than  in  most  combinations  found  in  the  soil,  and  yet  are  not 
readily  leeched  out  of  it. 

6)  Calcite  (CaCO^):  often  limestones  come  from  the  shells  of 
animals,  as  snails  and  mussels.  Diatoms  build  walls  of  silica  which  are 
ordinal!  ty  Indissoluble.  Nature  works  under  tremendously  long  periods 
of  tire. 

'•'rater  containing  carbon  dioxide  (CO^)  will  dissolve  shells  and 
thus  limestones  often  do  not  show  shells.  Shells  in  river  and  ocean  mud 
are  not  pure  but  are  mixed  with  silt,  sand  and  clay;  they  arc  ,.;ood  for 
soils. 


7)  Dolomite  (MgfCaJCO^):  may  contain  as  high  as  4^  of  lig. 


100. 


Dolomite  soils  are  in  "bad  repufe,  in  both  the  United  States  and 
Europe.  They  are  barren  soils.  MgO  "becomes  poisonous  to  plants  unless 
CaO  is  present. 

8)  Gypsum:  (  CaSG^J  :  does  not  occur  extensively.  In  gypsum  lands 
it  trices  the  form  of  a  sand.  GyjDsum  is  a  good  fertilizer  for  bad  alkali 
lands;  it  acts  as  a  corrector  of  the  alkalies. 

9)  Iron  oxides  and  hydrates:  these  substances  are  freed  from 
rocks  "by  decomposition.  They  give  color  to  soils,  and  form  an  important 
part  of  the  soil  by  becoming  colloid  materials  with  large  water  capaci- 
ties. Hut  too  much  of  these  substances  is  not  good;  some  salts  of  J?e  ar« 
injurious. 

£.  Various  rocks  contributing  to  soil  and  the  Value  of  their  pro- 
duct."" 

^^  Rocks:  are  of  three  classes:  eruptive,  sedimentary,  and 
:.nrr.orphic.  Van  Hise  considers  that  sedimentary  and  metamorphic  rocks 
ire  not  different  from  ea.ch  other  except  in  degree. 
a)  :;edimuntary  rocks: 

(1)  Limestones  *>.re  frequent  and  of  many  varities.  They 

may  contain  as  much  as  ^'O/i  of  foreign  materials.  They  occur  everywhere, 
all  over  the  earth.  Garble  is  considered  as  metamorphic  rock.  Limestones 
are  found  in  all  stages  of  development,  and  in  general  it  may  be  said 
thp,t  they  nmke  £ood  soils.  There  are  some  exceptions;  limestone  bluffs 
are  not  good  soils:  the  drainage  is  poor,  the  soils  are  washed.  Water 
runs  off  easily,  and  carves  out  underground  runways  and  caves,  with  ver^ 
rapid  circulation.  Limestone  regions  are  apt  to  be  poor  in  well  and  cis- 
tern supply. 

In  decomposition  soil  loses  a  large  part  of  its  lime  and  becomes 
silt  and  clay.  In  non-glaciated  country  we  may  have: 

Indissoluble 

material       Lime 


Soil 

Sub-soil  ?1>  1. 

Limestone  11#         80.0; 


Limestone  soils  are  apt  to  sometimes  be  too  good  for  forest  pur- 
poses. In  order  to  make  100$  of  limestone  soil  it  was  necessary  to  dis- 
solve upwards  of  ?00#  of  original  rock.  Leeching  must  occur  simultan- 
eously with  '^oil  formation.  Lime  leaches  out  of  limestone  when  it  dis- 
integrates; this  is  an  important  process. 

(2)  Sandstones:,  conglomerates,  etc.,  to  quartzite:  these  are 
composed  of  sands  and  gravels  which  originated  from  the  eruptive  rocks, 
\?ere  decomposed  from  these  rocks,  washed  over  and  cemented  into  new 
rocks.  The  cements  varied  vrom  iron  or  pure  silica  to  clay,  and  often 
varied  with  the  coarseness  of  the  sand.  Soluble  materials  leach  out  in- 
to the  soils,  which  is  a  good  process  for  the  soils.  Sandstones  vary  in 
hardness  to  f?  Ise  quartzita.  Calc  limestone  makes  a  good  soil. 

(3)  ^ales,  clays,  slates:  are  hard,  with  a  metamorphic  ten- 
dency. They  are  of  the  same  composition  as  granites,  with  50-7t>/<  3i02» 
Their  decomposition  leads  to  a  variety  of  soils.  They  vary  in  resis- 
tance to  decomposition,  as  some  are  very  soft;  they  usually  make  stony 
lands,  and  are  very  variable  in  quality  from  good  fertile  soils  to  poor 
and  extremely  lean  soils.  Ordinary  slate  lands  are  good  enough  for  hard- 


101. 


woods,  and  affect  drainage  and  water  circulation.  The  Appalachian  slates 
when  slanting  let  lands  slip,  and  thus  give  riss  to  slips. 

b)  Metamorphic  rocks. 

Ketamorphic  rocks  undergo  changes  from  their  original  struc- 
ture of  igneous  or  sedimentary  rocks  thru  the  agencies  of  heat,  pres- 
sure, -^nd  water.  Practically  all  of  the  mnterial  in  metamorphosis  be- 
comes crystalline.  Here  \?e  find  quart zite;  granites  weather  slowly  and 
deeply,  producing  a  deep  and  good  soil.  Grthoclase  yields  potash,  as  al- 
so doon  syenite.  They  may  tend  to  heavy  clay  l^nds. 

Diorites  and  diabases  give  more  potash  than  the  last  named  rocks, 
the  diabase  being  the  "better  of  the  two,  tho  not  very  extensive;  they 
are  good  for  soils,  vica  schists  and  gneisses  are  modifications  of  gra- 
nite "/ith  much  niicr».  layered.  They  consist  of  mic^  and  qjjactz,  with  lit- 
tle feldspar;  they  produce  lean  and  coarse  soils. 

c)  Eruptive  rocks. 

Eruptive  rocks  may  be  either  acid  or  basic.  Silica  is  found 
here.  They  usually  produce  good  soils,  tho  sometimes  stony  in  character, 
They  may  be  considered  as  occurring  in  three  forma: 

1)  Massive  forms;  basalt  is  common  here,  particularly  in 
columnar  form. 

2)  Broken  lava,  sometimes  in  cracked  layers,  in  Northern  Cali- 
fornia. 

3)  Spongy  form  or  pumice  stone.  Large  areas  in  the  northwest, 
nr>  in  the  Cascades,  are  covered  with  pumice  sands. 

H)  Methods  of  Soil  Formation,  or.  How  Soils  are  tfade. 

There  are  three  general  phases  in  the  formation  of  soils: 
Physical  changes:  weathering, disintegration . 
Chemical  changes:  decomposition, recomposition. 
Transportation. 
Physically 

li.^Rock  breaks  up  due  either  to   change  of  temperature  or  to 
freezing  of  >^ter  in  crevices.  Chemical  action  by  water  dissolves  it 
and  transfers  it.  (v/ith  plenty  of  time  and  plenty  of  water  almost  any- 
thing will  dissolve,  even  the  most  indissoluble  of  substances,  to  some 
extent).  Leeching  of  materials  is  important. 

Rock  weathers  faster  in  a  hot  and  desert  country,;  also  by  freez- 
ing; by  being  broken  mechanically;  and  by  being  ground  by  glaciers,  wa- 
ter and  winds.  Huch  rock  is  worn  and  dissolved  by  water,  especially  suci: 
as  contains  acids  (C02)  •  Part  of  the  rock  is  carried  in  solution;  this 
is  very  important  in  connection  with  the  formation  of  fresh  soil. 

Plants  assist  the  physical  work;  they  protect  arid  hold  the  rock 
surface,  and  their  roots  hold  the  soil. 

b>.  Chemical  action  is  one  of  decomposition  and  recompositiori. 
This  prcTceas  is  aided  by  temperature  in  some  parts  of  the  country,  and 
by  humidity.  Egyptian  monuments  which  lasted  for  thousands  of  years  in 
the  dry  climate  of  3gypt  were  brou^t  to  America,  and  they  undoubtedly 
will  not  last  in  our  humid  climate;  they  have  already  shown  signs  of 
giving  way.    ater  and  carbon  dioxide  are  again  the  main  agents  in  che- 
mical decomposition  of  rAcks,  together  with  other  acids,  soluble  salts 
and  alkalies.  Plants  aid  physically,  but  also  add  chemicpl  substances 


102. 


or  secretions  which  are  able  to  dissolve  other  substances.  Fungi  dis- 
solve rock  and  wood  alike.  There  is  a  continual  proces.:.  of  chemicr  1 
disorganization  and  of  recoraposi  tion  to  other  forms,  and  to  new  forms. 

These  processes  are  now  going  on  as  in  the  pant  and  they  will  go 
on  indefinitely.  Leaching  is  a  good  example. 

£.  Soil  transportation.  Many  soils  are  not  in  place,  especially 
in  gla.cir.ted  ru/jioris;  a  great  pnrt  of  the  surface  of  the  earth  is  over- 
laid with  alluvial  or  wnter  soils;  wind-carried  soils  nnd  loess  cover 
over  1/6  of  the  land  area,  which  rep.lly  is  an  immense  area* 

All  riv.-ra  and  other  run-off  s  carry  away  materials  and  soils 
"bodily,  and  deposit  them  as  sorted  materials,  classified  to  coarse,  fine, 
and  he-'v/y  soils,  and  characterized  by  deposition  of  like  soils.  Ground 
water  constantly  carry  away  a  part  of  the  soil;  the  amounts  are  usually 
small  individually,  but  the  aggregate  is  large.  Leaching  plays  an  irapor- 
t«nt  pn.rt  here.  This  action  is  faster  in  a  wet  country  than  in  a  dry 
one.  Both  surface  and  underground  run-off  s  or  transportations  are  in- 
fluenced by  the  character  of  the  soils  thru  which  they  pass,  and  by 
absorption  anci  solution. 

<i.  Humus  formation.  The  formation  of  humus  is  due  to  the  actions 
of  livirT      ni  si-is,  especially  "bacteria  which  decompose  organic  ma- 
terial. The  chief  product  of  this  action  is  CG2.  H^COj  or  carbonic  acid 
is  used  .iure  of  decomposition.  This  process  is  influenced  by 

the  influences  of  bacteria  life.  Any  injury  to  bacteria  injures  humus 
formation,  vhich  depends  on. 

temperature 

moisture 

freedom  from  poisonous  materials  (iron  salts) 

mineral  iwi 


Kuinus  formation  takes  place  ten  times  as  fast  at  80°  summer  than 
at  50°.  Cry  soil  stops  the  formation  of  humus.  4J£  of  water  content  gave 
an  action  which  1?  primes  as  fast  as  was  obtained  from  7%  with  humus  $Jfctt 
(compos).   Oxidation  is  an  important  factor  in  forming  humus.  If  humus 
be  left  in  a  pile  for  a  sufficient  length  of  time  it  will  change  to 
port,  then  to  lignite,  and  to  anthracite. 

Nutritive  salts  necessary:  bacteria  need  K,  JNaO,  etc.,  for  growti 
Plenty  of  lime  allows  an  easier  formation  of  humus.  Oxygen  gives  aera- 
tion, which  is  very  favorable  to  the  process. 

A  distinction  should  be  made  between  decomposition  and  ferraen- 
tion:  the  former  often  includes  the  latter:  fermentation  produces  a 
change  to: 

1)  marsh  gas 

21  to  ? 

3)  to  hydrogen, 

The  change  of  leaves  to  humus  is  interesting.  The  steps  of  this 
process  are  substantially  as  follows: 


Leaching  out  of  salts. 

Leave*  are  more  or  less  broken,  by  animals,  etc. 

Decomposition  by  filamentous  fungi. 


4)  Further  decomposition  to  humus  by  bacteria. 


103. 


In  1000//  of  white  onlc  leaves  there  are:  90//'  mineral  salts 

including        23« 


During  the  first  about  3o  to  4  pounds  are  dissolved. 
The  following  table  shows  thJa  contents  in  C,H,0,and  K  of  cellu- 
lose, oaks,  peat,  brown  coal  and  anthracite: 


lOO,/ : 
Harae   Cellulose 


TABLE 
oaks 


peat          brown  anthracite 
ground  6'  below  coal 
surface 


c 
H 

o 
c 


4^; 

6 

49 


6 
43 


39 


5 

36 
0.8 


64# 

5 

27 

4.1 


24 
0.6 


2.5 

2.5) 
) 


Oak  gains  C  and  loses  0. 
Peat  gains  C,  loses  0,  ^ 


H;  valuable  for  humus. 


Hutnic  acids. 

pert  bog  is  sour  below  the  surface,  because  of  humic  acids, 
of  which  there  are  several:  ulmic,  humic,  crenic  and  apocrenic  acids. 
Ulmin  compounds  are  injurious  to  the  soil;  hurain  compounds  are  benefi- 
ci-1.  With  much  w.iter  the  bacteria  produce  ulmin  substances  which  soon 
attain  a  concentration  that  kills  the  bacteria  and  then  is  purely  che- 
mical in  nature.  It  is  brownish  (seen  in  swamps,  etc.).  The  solution 
gives  a  litmus  reaction  indicating  acidity,  therefore  the  soils  are  calfc* 
ed  sour  soils.  The  acidity  is  due  to:  ulmic  acid,  and  to  apocrenic  acid, 
reacting  easily  with  alkalies  to  form  alkalic  compounds.  Ulmin  is  itself 
indissoluble,  but  io  soluble  with  an  acid.  These  soils  produce  sour  soil 
vegetation.  In  reclamation  lime  is  used.  All  soils  tend  to  sourness  un- 
der cultivation,  especially  when  very  wet.  Calcareous  soils  resist  this 
action  longer  and  arc  longer  lived  and  more  fertile  than  non-calcareous 
soils.  Ilumic  acids  are  poisonous  to  plants;  strong,  &  attack  minerals. 

Properties  and  nature  of  Kumus:  humus  is  distinctly  a  colloid;  it 
swells  and  shrinks  with  water.  Peat  shrinks  very  much;  if  it  is  thoroly 
dried  you  cannot  swell  it  again.  Humus  increases  with  the  number  of 
roots  gro  ;in,v  in  it.   It  is  porous,  plastic,  adhesive,  colloidal;  its 
volirne  increases  several  times  upon  absorption  of  water;  it  is  very 
absorptive  of  gases  and  moisture;  its  dark  color  absorbs  heat  and  it 
warms  readily.  Its  density  is  1.4.  It  is  composed  of  C,N,and  0,  and  has 
a  complex  formula.  It  may  be  produced: 

&u&&&   1)  Artificially  by  caustic  alkali  on  sugar  or  cellulose; 

2)  fl*&lft&fc&&  Change  in  fibre  by  bacteria  and  fpngi  pro- 
ducing ulmin  and  humin; 

3)  Oxidation  of  ulmin  and  humin  acids  to  crenic  and  apo- 
crenic acids; 

%%  Ulmin  and  humic  acids  form  indissoluble  salts  with  Ca 
Crenic  and  apocrenic*1   **   soluble        w     *   H 
Therefore  the  absence  of  Ca  arid  Mg  from  clayo  by  leaching,  gives 
f  ire 


Humus  is  important  in  regard  to  nitrogen.  The  amount  of  li  varies 
according  to  the  locality.  Stable  manure  humus  gives  4-8/t-  Wt  wood  gives 


104. 


2/i,  straw  gives  2-4>  .  £&&£&  Much  loss  of  humus  t'ikes  place  under  tilling. 
The  continual  raising  of  one  cereal  depletes  the  soil  of  N.  vVhen,  in 
one  cage,  wheat  was  raised  continually  for  8  yc    ,  there  was  a  total 
loss  of  1700#  of  N  per  acre  for  soluble  nitrates  (Schneider).  Only 
of  it  was  utilized  for  the  product.  The  huinus  loss  was  1  ton  per  acre 
per  ye^r.  ''ith  rotation  an  equlibriura  obtains  with  N. 

Humus  decreases  downwards.  Drier  soils  are  apt  to  contain  more 

N. 

All  humus  with  moisture  and  oxygen  is  unstable  s.nd  is  worked  over 
by  bacteria.  Some  Pfclypora  work  the  material  over  to  humus  and  then 
quit,  leaving  it  to  other  fungi  to  finish.  First  come  filamentous  fungi; 
then  bacteria;  then  humus  destroyer^  "bacteria  which  completely  destroy 
the  hirrius  an  such  ->nd  transform  it  back  to  its  chemical  constituents, 
and  finally  th-.re  is  no  humus  loft.  Or  if  the  humus  is  not  destroyed  it 
becomes  sour;  this  sour  huir-us  and  peat  ara  injurious  to  plants: 

1)  They  prevent  plants  from  getting  water.  They -produce  a 
physically  dry  and  arid  soil. 

2)  They  are  deficient  in  nutritive  salts. 

3)  They  hold  nutritive  salts  with  a  treiaenuous  tenacity,  so 
that  plants  are  unable  to  get  them. 

Effects  of  Humus  on  Soil: 
1)  Beneficial: 

"oisture.  As  a  colloid  it  takes  and  holds  moisture  readily 


Turn! she a  material  for  soil  activity,  for  bacteria. 
Colloid  helps  to  loosedn  soil,  and  thus  increases  aeration 
Colloid  helps  to  hold  plant  foods. 
2) , Injurious: 

a)  Muck  heats  up,  dries  to  a  powder;  sour  acids  injure  plants 
Humic  acid  develops  to  "  cement  and  forms  a  hardpan. 

I)  Physics  of  the  Soil. 

a,.  Composition  and  structure.  Discussion  was  &*&&&&&.  omit  ted. 

]b.  Nature  of  sand  and  silt.  Sand  and  silt  ar  made  up  of  small 
individual  particles,  vdiich  do  not  form  a  lump  structure,  and  therefore 
will  "pack"  readily.  There  are  two  characteristics  of  packing: 

1)  Individual  grain  gives  a  small  surface  and  therefore  less 
wnter  holding  power, and  surface  tension;  sand  has  leas  surface  than  clay 

BO  clay  holds  water  better  than  sand. 

2)  Bad  aeration. 

With  sand  and  silts  there  are  certain  characteristics: 


More  leaching 
Less  plant  food 
Less  humus 


4)  Less  water 

5)  Less  organic  life* 

£.  Clay  and  its  part  in  physical  composition;  colloidal  charac- 
ter of  clay. 

Clays  act  as  a  cement  and  past,  enwrapping  particles  of  sand 
and  nodding  them  together.  These  particles  cling  and  form  lumps,  giving 
good  tilth  snd  a  mellow  soil . 

Clay  is  characterized  by  small  particles,  good  capacity  for 
holding  water,  good  mineral  salts;  it  contains  more  plant  foods,  more 
humus,  more  organic  substances  and  plant  and  animal  life;  it  has  better 


105. 


aeration,  which  helps  smaller  forms  of  life. 

A  large  amount  of  extremely  fine  silts  in  thes  clay  uoil  gives 
the  putty  soil,  which  differs  from  the  pure  clay  both  in  composition 
nnd  in  action  with  respect  to  site  and  plants  growing  on  it.  The  par- 
ticles are  about  25  microns  in  diameter. 

Clay  is  very  plastic,  this  "being  a  characteristic  property,  sin- 
ce clay  is  *  hydrous  aluminum  eilcate.  This  plasticity  is  restricted  to 
particles  of  very  small  size;  n.  plastic  clay  will  not  hold  8  inches  of 
water  in  24  hours.  The  addition  of  salt  ( ImCl }  will  flocculate  clay. 
Sodium  carbonate  (l\a2COo)  will  prevent  f locculr>tion  cf  clay. 

Further  information  in  regard  to  clay  and  its  properties  may  be 
found  in  references  on  Soils  as  mentioned  nbove,  arm  also  in  Bulletin 
388,  J,  .Geological  G-urvey,  entitled:  The  Colloid  Matter  of  Clay  and  its 

••ent . 

ci.  \Veight  of  Ciils.  is 

The  average  specific  gravity  of  rocks  about  2«5«  Heavy  rocks 
contain  iron.  Soils  have  half  the  volume  weight  of  the  soil  rocks.  In 
other  words,  they  are  half  rock  and  half  atmosphere. 

The  weight  of  soil  is  the  result  of  two  factors:  the  absolute 
specific  gravity,  and  the  volume  of  pore  space  in  the  mans.  An  average 
specific  grnvity  of  r.oil  material  is  often  Accepted  ^s  2.65.  The  weight 
of  n  givcm  volume  of  soil  may  be  determined  from  the  pore  space  and  spe- 
cific gravity  of  the  materials,  by  use  of  the  following  formulae: 

.1)  V/3  *  Jw  x  (2.65'  x  (100  ~  ¥\. 

Where   vvs  *  Height  of  given  volume  of  soil 

/v;  =  Weight  of  volume  of  water  equal  to  volume  tff  soil 

P  r  Per  cent  of  pore  space 

(100  -  P)  a  Per  cent  of  volume  occupied  by  soil 

2)  Or  the  following  formula  may  bs  used,  and  is  often  more 
convenient : 

We  *  Ap.Sp.  x  Ww. 
-re   WB  r  height  of  soil 

Ap.Sp.«  Apparent  specific  gravity 

Ww  r  v.eight  of  volume  of  water  equal  to  that  occupied  by 
the  r>oil. 

Following  ia  a  table  of  weights  of  a  few  soils: 

Vol.Wt.  ft. per       Wt.per 

Soil               or  apparent  cu.ft.     acre-ft. 

Sp.  Gr. 

1.  Clean  sand  l.?6  110. 0#  4,800,000  # 

2.  Coarse  sand  1.60  100.0  4,3^6,000 

3.  'odium   sand  1.J4  96.0  4,200,000 

4.  Fine    s*nd  1.48  93-0  4,o60tOOO 

5.  Sandy  loam  1-30  61.0  3.5!?Q,000 

6.  Pine  sandy  loam  1.32  82.5  3.590,000 

7.  Silt  loam  1.24  77-5  3,400,000 

8.  Clay  loam  1.22  7^.0  3.330,000 

9.  Clay  1.17  72.6  3,150,000 
10.  "Gumbo"  clay  1.10  Ou.i>'  3,000,000 

--Lyon  and  .Pippin. 


106. 


This  table  shows  that  the  finer  the  soil  the  li^iter  its  abso- 
lute -weight.  Clay  soils  may  range  from  60  to  90  pounds  in  weight,  accor- 
ding to  their  fineness  and  state  of  granulation,  linn  a  soils  weigh  from 
90  to  110  pounds.  In  practice,  «oils  are  spoken  of  as  "light1*  and  "hea- 
vy", but  tli  is  use  of  these  terras  does  not  apply  to  the  weight  of  the 
soil.  The  term  light  is  applied  to  sanoy  soil  bec-iune  the  particles 
move  freely;  on  the  other  hand,  a  clay  is  termed  heavy  because  of  its 
cohesiveness,  ^nd  difficulty  in  working  by  the  fanner. 

A  dry  sand  may  weigh  89//J  a  dry  clay  may  weigh 


e>.  Pore  space  and  arrangement  of  particles  in  various  soils. 

.re  space  is  apace  riot  occupied  by  soil  pnrticles.  In  a  mass 
of  particles  there  is  some  unoccupied  or  pore  space.  It  the  particles 
are  fine,  then  the  intervening  spaces  are  correspondingly  small;  if 
large,  the  spaces  are  large.  Theo.r  e  t  i  cally  .  pore  space  is  independent  of 
the  ni^e  of  the  particles,  with  any  given  arrangement.  There  would  be 
as  much  pore  sr>ace  in  a  cubic  foot  of  uackshot  as  in  one  of  marbles. 
But  in  the  coil  this  ie  not  true.  For,  the  finer  the  particles,  the  lar- 
ger the  proportion  of  pore  space  is  f  o  md  to  be. 

A  clay  has  much  more  total  pore  space  than  a  sand,  41tho  the  in- 
dividual spaces  or  openings  between  the  particles  are  much  smaller  in 
the  clay.  The  approximate  ^  of  pore  space  in  a  soil  may  be  calculated 
by  use  of  the  following  formula; 

Vw 

*  100  .   x  100 


>re  P  rPer  cent  of  pore  space 

Vs  *  Volume  in  c.c.  occupied  by  the  soil 
Vw  «  Weight  of  water  equal  to  weight  of  soil  in  grams 
Vp  r  Volume  in  c.c.  of  pore  space  in  soil 
2.65  =  Specific  gravity  of  soil  particles. 

Another  and  more  simple  formula  which  may  be  used  in  the  calcu- 
lation of  the  pore  space  is  aa  follows: 

P  s  100  -  Ap.  SP.  _Kr.  x  100 
Ab  .  sp  .  gr  . 

Where  P  *  Per  cent  of  pore  space 

Ap.  sp.  «  Apparent  specific  gravity  or  volume  weight 
Ab.  sp.  s  Absolute  specific  gravity  of  soil  material 
•  Total  space  occupied  by  soil  mass. 


The  different  amounts  of  pore  space  in  soils  change/  the  charac 

ter  of  the  soil  materially.  Hilgard  gives  the  following  figures  which 

may  be  used  as  convenient  standard  figures,  for  %  of  pore  space  in 
various  soils: 

Packed  sand  soil  has  less  than  JO/  pore  sp«ce, 

Ordinary  *     "    "  "     "  6c;:    "     w 

Clay  aoilft    »   *  A    47-  50;' 

Forest  soil  has  50-  6 

Farm  aoil  has  35-  J>      "     " 


107. 


Lyon  an.     ;^in  give  the  following  relations  between  texture  and 
pore  opaCf-  for  soils  in  field  condition: 

by  volume 

1.  Clean  sand  33  .W 

2.  Coarse  sand  40.00 

3.  Medium  smid  41.  bO 

4.  Fine  snnd  44.10 
I?.  Sanely  loasa  i?'l«00 

6.  Fine  sr-ndy  loaiL       >0.00 

7.  Cilt  loom  ^3-  00 

8.  Clav  loam  •  . 

.  Clf?.y  .00 

10.  "Gunsbo*  clay  58.46 

11.  Heavy  clay  47.19 

12.  Very  horr/y  cl;  6^.12 

5on  for  the  ^re'  ter  porosity  of  the  finer  soils  appears 
to  be,  that  the  smallest  particles  are  so  li&ht  that  they  do  not  settle 
so  closely  together  in  proportion  to  their  &&&  aiae  a&  do  the  sand  par- 
ticlee,  becnusrr  of  the  greater  friction  between  their  surfaces.  Mien 
thia  i«  overcome  by  mixing  in  wattr,  such  material  becomes  uena©.  Xrea% 
ment  grontl.     »«ta  th«  Qtructure  ana  therefore  the  porosity  of  the 
coil. 


m*ter  of  tlie  individual  pore  spaces  id  of  importance,  a* 
1  ns  the  total  volume  of  pore  apace,  sine©  theae  determine  the  cr  pa- 
city  o:      oil  to  retain  and  r&ove  water  and  to  permit  the?  circulation 
of  gnr:     i  the  soil  maas,  as  well  as  to  facilitate  the  extension  of  tfee 
";nt  root;-. 

best  arrangement  of  the  soil  is  that  of  "crumbs".  There  are 
veral  possible  arrangements  of  the  soil  particles,  belonging  to  the 
folio  2        ;>.i  forme.: 

i;  In  columnar  order,  with  each  particle 
ite  ncigiibors  at  oniy  four  points.  I'ho 
unocc  .     or  pore  space  is  47.64>  of  the  total 
volume  occ 


In  oblique  order,  with  each  particle 
touching  i     Labors  at  six  points,  t^ie  pore 
space  is  2t>.9b,  of  the  total  volume. 


3)  Vheo^  spheres  ma>  be  gati^ered  into 
larger  spheres  vshich  r^-at  together  in  the 

oecon      r.  Tlie  pore  space  ia  greatly  increased, 
ing  74. 

4)  On  Uie  otaer  hand,  if  there  ore 
spheres  of  several  sizes  so  that  Uie  small  ones 
may  rv;at  in  the  spaces  between  the  lar^e  ones, 

1  pore  spaco  will  be  reduced  below  2>.9: 
and  the  spaces  may  continue  to  t»e  filled  in  by 

spheres  until  the  mass  is  practically 
soliu,  without  pores. 

It  is  of  course  re  cognised  that  under  field  conditions  these 
iderl  nrrangemento  do  not  pertain,  but  these  figures  illustrate  the 


108. 


underlying  factor*  which  determine  differences  in  pore  space,  and,  alsg 
differences  in  other  physical  properties.  3oil  pnrticles  are  irregular 
in  Bhai>e  and  uneven  in  size,  llien  brought  very  close  together,  as  occurs 
in  mixing  in  a  wet  consition,  th&ir  molecular  attraction  is  brought  intp 
operation  and,  especially  when  dry,  they  are  held  together  very  secure- 
ly. In  this  wr»y  the  normal  molecular  attraction  of  the  soil  pnrticles  is 
increased  "by  the  deposition  around  them  of  the  material  in  solution. 

Applying  these  principles  to  the  soil,  it  is  observed  th«t  there 
/  be  two  general  r»rrn.mi;er<«ents  of  the  particles. 

1}  :jla.cl}  particle  mny  be  free  and  separate  frorc  itn  neighbors. 
This  is  a  separate-.:jr.-?.i.i  structure.  That  is,  each  particle  of  soil  fun- 
ctions separniely.  lien  by  proper  uanipulaticn  the  particles  are  so  pack 
ed  together  th».t  the  small  particles  quite  completely  fill  in  the  spaces 
between  tlu?  l?».rge  ones,  so  that  ?  very  dense  raass  is  formed,  the  struc- 
ture i?  ten  ed  "puddled*.  The  terrr.  puddled,  in  this  connection,  is  rela- 
ted to  the  fact  that  such  an  arrangement  aan  be  obtained  only  in  fine- 
textured  soils  'vhen  they  arc  mixed  (puddled)  in  a  very  wert  condition, 
so  Dint  the  fine  particles  will  move  into  the  large  spaces. 

2)  On  the  other  hand,  the  small  particles  may  adhere  to  the 
large  oMc-n,  or  a  number  of  small  particles  may  adhere  together  as  a 
group  or  granule.  Mien  a  number  of  united  particles  function  together 
as  a  single  larger  particle  or  granule,  the  structure  is  termed  "granu- 
lar". This  arrangement  is  also  termed  the  crumb  structure.  According  as 

:^o  grout-3  are  prominent  or  inconspicuous,  the  soil  is  said  to  be  well 
or  poorly  gr?.nul".  t'"d. 

i  the  granules  reach  large  size,  so  that  they  interfere 
with  the  b..st  functioning  of  the  soil,  they  are  termed  clods.  That  ia, 
a  clod  is  an  un sizable  granule. 

It  is  well  known  that  n  box  of  baseballs,  or  a  pile  of  boulders, 
or  over,  a  box  of  sand,  doer?  not  adhere  together  to  any  appreciable  ex- 
tent.     I  ,     ill  the  co arse -textured  classes,  Certainly  down  to 
the  size  of  very  fine  sand,  there  is  very  little  tendency  to  granulate. 
But  in  the-  silt,  to  e.  small  extent,  and  in  the  clay,  to  a  very  great  ex- 
tent, granulation  is  strong. 

:.  a  crumb  arm;,  t,  then,  la  the  most  desirable;  the  parti- 
cles are  glued  together  by  clay  and  other  agents  into  lumps  or  crumbs. 
This  lumps  may  take  very  irregular  shapes.  This  structure  is  desirable 
for  all  soils.  Ml  of  our  arid  soils  are  rich  in  lime,  much  of  this  be- 

.jlucintr  by  lime  carbonate.  The  crumb  structure  nay  be  changed  by 
in torf ererice  vrith  the  character  of  the  clay.  It  is  advisable  not  to 
plow  wet  soil:  the  clay  puddles  and  formo  baked  lumps.  Inundation  also 
produces  baked  clay. 

In  Mature  the  roots  give  the  soil  good  tillage;  the  roots  conti- 
this  tillage,  and  protection  of  the  soil  by  mulch  is  maintained.  The 
mont  important  function  of  mulch  in  the  foreut  i»  to  protect  the  soil,  i 
It  prevents  packing  by  water,  etc. 

A  certain  amount  of  moisture  and  cold  is  often  desirable,  for 
till .-  r^f.  Freezing  helps  the  crumb  condition  and  destroys  the  puddled- 
condition  of  clay.  The  soil  expands  in  frost,  and  cracks  in  dry  weather. 
Clay  will  not  crack  when  there  ia  less  than  a  minimum  of  l^'/V  clay  in  the 
soil7in  good  land;  the  minimum  is  less  on  poor  land. 


109- 


£.  Color  of  soil.  Cause,  effect. 

Pure  quartz,  limestones,  and  similar  soils  ft  re  almost  color- 
less; white  sands  are  good  examples.  A  great  variety  of  colors  are,  how- 
evor,  exhibited  by  most  soils.  These  colorss  are  not  usually  the  result 
of  the  color  of  trie  individual  particles  -which  make  up  the  bulk  of  the 
material,  but  is  rather  the  result  of  material  which  adheres  to  the  par- 
ticles. 

Color  in  soil  is  due  to  Uvo  lu^in  causes:  iron  compounds,  and 
organic  nn.tl-:r.  Iron  ccMpoands  produce  reel,  yellow,  blue  and  gray  col- 
ors; organic  mi    r,  an  humus,  produces  a  u-  rk  color,  often  acme  shaae 
of  blnclc  or  brov/n.  *$ien  these  are  coi-i'oiiifcu,  various  intermediate  tints 
arc  cbt      ,   or  ex^uple,  ?;hen  a  rod  soil  is  rich  in  decayed  organic 
r--]     •  ~  .:    e  comes  of  r-,  rich  brown  color. 


/  of  organic  matter  will  change  a  g»ay  clay  to  a  black 
"waxy"  l^.n;  ;      11  amount  will  give  a  strong  color.  J&rown  soils  are 
common  over  the  1  u  L   portion  of  the  United  States,  ited  soils  are  found 
in  the  Jouth  from  Me---  "n^land  to  Texas,  and  also  in  arid  countries  and 
in  the  tropic  3.  Gr^y  soilo  are  found  in  sexndy  lands,  especially  in  the 
far  North-west,  in  regions  of  ^reot  rnin. 

The  color  of  soils,  especially  ae  regards  iron  compounds,  is  not 
fully  understood,  but  it  is  safe  to  say  that  much  color  is  the  result 
of  different  forms  of  iron  in  the  soil.  In  the  boulder  clay  of  the  gla- 
ciateci  nectiv-c;:.j  a  bluish  color  ia  common,  which  seerr.s  to  i-«  due  to  the 
presence  of  ;rotoxid  of  iron  (I^eO),  resulting  from  the  ^r^at  deficiency 
n.    ,re  this  cornes  in  contact  with  carbonated  water,  it  may  be 
ch^n.rod  to  the  car"=  onnte  of  iron,  which  is  gray,  and  consequently  along 
the  .r.o,.Q  t&  line  of  roots  and  in  the  Dot  torn  of  ponds  this  gray  color  may 
bs  f  o  .  rid  . 

Ihere  there  is  an  abundant  supply  of  oxygen,  the  iron  takes  on 
the  seoquio,  id  (Fe^O^)  form,  which  haa  a  deep  red  color,  typified  by 
iron  rust.  Wuere  the  red  soil  stands  much  in  contact  with  water,  it  may 
become  yellov  by  the  hydration  of  the  iron  (Pe^G-j  plus  H^O).  In  many 
regions  a  dark-  colored  soil  is  looked  upon  as  a  fertile  soil.  This  rela- 
tion has  developed  because  of  the  association  of  a  dark  color  with  the 
presence  of  organic  .matter,  with  i,&fe  all  its  beneficial  effects,  while 
the  lirjht  color  iridicp.tes  its  absence.  This  relation  doew  not  nold  uni- 
versally, but  it  ia  iuite  a  reliable  guide. 

The  only  instances  where  the  color  of  the  particles  themselves 
give  color  to  the  uoil  is  in  some  of  the  clean  quartz  sands  mentioned 

ve,  Ther-i  the  white  color  of  the  dominant  mineral  gives  color  to  the 
maer>.  In  son.e  dark  elialey  sands  this  same  principle  obtains. 

Soils  may  be  classified  by  their  color;  color  of  soils  is  con- 
nected with  their  temperature  and  physical  condition;  ihe&c  two  points 
are  useful  in  the  field.  To  the  experienced  person,  the  color  of  the 
soil  is  a  valuable  guide  to  its  condition  and  productiveness.  Bottled 
anci  uneven  color,  for  instance,  indicates  poor  aeration,  frequently  the 
rerult  of  deficient  drainage. 


JLJLU. 


g.  Area  of  surface  of  soil  particles. 

The  surface  area  of  soil  particles  bears  fin  important  relation 
to  the  capillary  action  of  that  soil;  the  greater  th<:  area  of  the  sur- 
face of  the  particles,  the  icore  i.:oisture  is  held  on  their  Burfaces.  A 
large  surface  nlso  increases  the  rate  of  chemical  solution,  by  which  the 
food  constitutes  contained  in  the  mineral  particles  become  available  for 
tho  plant's  use.  Another  important  property  of  an  ir-'Tnonse  surface  area 
of  soils  is  to  retain  food  materials  in  a.  semi- available  form,.  In  ca- 
Tull'Ty  wter  the  w°ter  is  practically  held  between  two  plates,  and  the 
larger  t     plates  the  more  v/«ter  v/ili  be  held.  Consequently  the  more 
surface  per  pouna  of  dirt  holds  more  \mter;  dry  t;oil&  absorb  water. 

There  art.-  here  two  classes  of  soil... 

1)  Crystalloids:  sand. 

2)  Colloids:  clay,  iron  hydrates,  zeolites,  hun'us. 

e  crystalloid  has  only  the  outside  surface;  the  colloid  has 
particles  composed  of  smaller  particles  (It     JOG}  ^nd  a  lot  of  inside 
surfaces  »11  accessible  to  water.  Those  inside  surfaces  of  immeasurable 
surfaces  (particle*?)  <;re  greater  than  the  outuide  surfaces  of  measurable 
particles  . 

.rface  may  be  measured  by  its  hydroseopicity. 
Given  1  gm.  soil:  area  of  particles  in  metres  is: 
moderate  fine  sand       1.3  square  metres 
loamy  sand  ~j6. 

sandy  loam  8>.      '* 

mi la  clay  120.      * 

heavy  clay  2o^. 

extreme:  heavy  potter 's900      *     " 
clay,  Fe  hydrate 

A  few  standard  figures  (or  stocjt  figures)  may  be  given: 

so  il  surface 

1   sand  jiPO  square  yards 

1   loam  20,000          r<   ,  raoro  than  4  acres. 

1  hesvy  clay  M     rt  20  acres. 

ood 

e  surface  area  of  a  fine-textured  soil  is  greater  than  the  first 
thought       indicate.  This  immense  area  exposed  by  oolls  is  slgovrn  by 
the  following  table,  which  gives:  (1}  The  area  in  square  feet  of  one 
gram  of  the  soil;  (2)  The  surface  area  per  pound  of  the  same  soils; 
J3)  The  approximate  weight  per  cubic  foot  of  the  material  in  the  field; 
(4)  The  approximate  are-i  of  surface  in  one  cubic  foot  of  these  soils  as 
tlie^JL-  o  cciir  in  thf>  *' i  eld  . , 


£ 

Area  per   grn. 
pfq.    ftr 

11 

Area  per 
>b.    ^q.ft-. 

in 

Apprcx.wt 

•prjr  cu.ft 

IV 
Surf  .area  per 
cu.ft.       Sq.ft. 

1.    Co^rpe   sand 
2.   Medium   3^nd 
3.     -andy  loam 
4.    Pine    sfdy  loam     1 
5.    (-ilt    loqra 
6.    Clay  loam 
7-    Clay 
8.    Sand   hill 
9.    Hobart   clay 

0.8900 
1.0440 
1.8000 
i      1.6600 
2,9600 
4.0250 
4.4130 
0.0708 
„  7-?b20 

40b  .0 
473.0 

aio.o 

7^"o.o 
1,340.0 

l,d2J?.0 
2,000.0 

32.2 

,  i.rA^.o  ,  „ 

100 
96 

^ 

82 

77 
75 

71 

110 

60 

40,^00 
44,500 
66,600 
62,000 
104,000 
136,500 
142,000 

3tiKO 

200,000 

111. 


From  this  t-t.le  it  appears  that  one  pound  of  the  average  agri- 

cultur-<l  soil  may  have  from  nbout  400  &&&  square  feet,  in  the  case  of 
coarse  sand,  to  2000  square  feet  internal  surface  area,  in  the  case  of 
the  avenge  clay.  A  more  rear->onabl*  basis  of  comparison,  oecause  of  di£ 
ferences  in  volume  weight,  is  th^.t  of  one  cubic  foot  of  Uie  material,  a 
as  shown  t>y  the  fourth  column,  Iron,  which  it  appears  that  these  soils 
have  from  one  to  three  acres  of  surface  area.  These  -\re  otrikin  differ- 
ences, particularly  those  "bet-ween  soils      i  9»  ^lich  represent  extre- 
mes in  li.iit  and  h       il3,  respectively.  l<ombyr  8  is  the  sand-hill 
soil  of  the  Cp.rolirrTi,  "-na  is  of          ly  lo^v  agricultural  value. 
Number  9,  !-ioh-  :t  cl~y,  occurs  in  L     rn  llorih  Dakota,  -md  is  derived 
from  shnls  rock.  The  ran^  in  surf      rea  per  cubifi  foot  of  these  soife 
±<i  frorn  1/12  acre,  for  the  s^i'iiH,  to  almost  5  ^cres  f°r  -il{-  clay.  The 
latter  contains  ?6;'  of  clay  in  the  subsoil,  the  former  2,  • 

,e  surface  area  of  the  particles  in  a  given  wei'jht  of  soil  may 
be  c^lcul:t.ed  froic  the  formula: 


where 


..  s  Surface  are  in  square  centimeters 
v  *  Vean  difirrieter  in  centimeters 
.tTT^ber  of  particles  in  the  c 
ii  -  "5  1AiA  fPnrfcin 


:  3.1416 


in  the  clnn   or  separate. 
(Farticleff  supposed  spiieiical) 


h.  Hel?=tion  of  water  to  soil. 

Water  as  a  substance  is  v-::ry  remarkable.  It  i.,  used  as  a  unit 
of  weight,  of     ,  -.fid  br;in,j;  a  poor  conductor  of  he--«t  ia  raucli  used 
che.ric-'lly .  Other  characteristics  will  readily  occur  to  the  reader,  as 
resistance  to  compression,  thirst  qusnching,  f ire -extinguishing,  etc. 


soil 


There  ?.rcj  three  forms  in  \vhich  water  may  exist  in  soils; 

1}  Gravitational  or  free  water,  which  free  to  move  thru  the 
under  the  influence  of  gravity. 

2)  Capillary  or  film  water,  v/hich  is  helfl  against  gravity  by 


•  surface  tension  of  the  films  of  •>•/•-:  -er  surrounuing  tht 
3)"  Hygroscopic  moisture,  taken  fron  the  air;  it 
.  tamo sphere  on  the  surface  of  the  soil  particles,  when 
allowed  to  become  air-dry. 


soil  particles 
condenses  frora 
the  soil  is 


.e  hygroscopic  power  of  taking  water  from  the  air  is  proportion- 
al to  the  surface. 

•dy  lew;  trkes  2\%  of  its  weight  from  the 
Clay        "   8  *  w   "          !t   M 
Fe  hydrate         " 


From  i-.ilgard-  7/e  lenrn  that  hygroscopic  water  is  of  great  impor- 
tance in  regard  to  plants  and  treca.  :3ach,  in  an  experiment,  showed  that 
he  could  raise  plant.-  in  dry  soil,  by  the  aid  of  water  from  humid  air. 
In  California  people  do  the  same  thing  with  oranges,  spruce,  etc.,  on 
1  nd  that  W-K  formerly  desert  land,  v;ith  no  irrigation.  They  did  this 
by  utilizing  hygroscopic  water,  which  is  not  only  iiapur t:  nu,  but  is 
often  fully  sufficient  for  the  purpose. 

Hygroscopic  ^ater  Day  be  said  to  be  related  to  teiaperature  of  the 
soil,  as  it  prevents  over-heating  of  the  soil.  The  amount  of  moisture  in 
the  soil  nay"  be  misleauin^,  for  a  Band  with  only  8/'  water  may  produce 
better  crops  than  a  heavy  clay  with  \y/l  water.  This  is  because  the  sand 


1    12. 


its  wmt<  r  fo  the  plants;  the  clay  holds  on  to  its  hygroscopic 
water  and  gives  but  a  small  amount  to  the  plfntr. 

The  hygroscopic  capacity  of  a  soil  depends  on  the  texture  of  tie 
particles  find,  the  content  of  or^nnic  matter.  tince  hygroscppic  moisture 
is  a.  function  of  the  surface  exposed,  it  results  th"  c  the  larger  the 
surface  nrea  exposed  by  Uie  soil  particles,  the  greater  the  hygroscopic 
capacity  of  the  soil.  Reference  to  the  t??ble  on  pa-.;e  110  shows  fine- 
textured  soils  or  clay  ^oils  to  have  the  greatest  surface   .  .  ,   nd 
these  hold  the  -root  hygroscopic  i/ioiature.  Sand  soil:*.,  with  a  relatively 
small  eurf.-ctt   -G-,  hold  a  sir^all  -mount  of  tiiis  forr;,:  of  water.  Vhis  fact 
is  illustrated  bj   te  foliovvi.x;  w^ble: 

hygrosc.  water 
at  21U  C. 


Very  fine  sand 


-.ck 


7-3 
16.^' 

46.0 


the 


The   *bove   soils   were   pure   separates   derived  by  mechanical   analy- 
sis.   Vhe,  uras    s  :rve    to   show  the   direct   relation  between; 

1)  The   surface   area   exbibitc-:!   by   Uie    soil   particles  and 
j;rosco'.;aO   i.oioture    retained. 

2)  Jly^roecopic  moisture   a/id   temperature 

3)  Hygroscopic  moisture   and  humidity  of   th-?   atmosphere. 


roscopic   ..oisture   decreases  with   increnye   in   temperature. 
It   varies   directly  P.S   the   relnivu  liuinidity  of    t)ie   acr.iOBp}ior     -vith  which 
soil    is   in    contact.    Consequently,    in  the   fiir-dried   condition,    while 

•ys   r  oor;.<:  moifcture,    it   suiuom   exliilite   its  maximum 

hygroacu    .  pacity.    Under  average   conditions   of  humidity,    a  light    sand 

may    retain    fro      0.5    -o    1>  ,    a   silt    loam   2-4/T   and   a   clay   u-1^/  .    Tiiis   is 
course    uiiJ-vailablo    I'or  plant  a. 

Capillary  water  is  used  for  plant  food.    It   ia    Uic  film  or  capil- 
lary noifctu  supports   planty.    The   roots  of   ordinary   crops   are 

\-.c   tiit;   moisture   needed  by  thros  cling   their  way  between   the 
soil   particleo,    v:here    Diey  may  come   in   intimate   contact   with    t,heoe 
moisture   fil    s  and  r»>;sorb   the  needed  £uppl^    of  wciter,    witli   bwin^  exclud- 
ed fro.u    tlie   r-.ir   aupply   wliicii  promo  tee    tiicir  growth.   Fox,    in    the   capil- 
lari/ly  moiut    yoil,    tlie  water  i;»   ret.uivicti   chiefly  in    the   very   tjnaall    spa- 
ce a,      -•-  .     U       large    spaces   occupied  by  air. 

.axinui:.  diauunt  of  capill;iry  completely  fill»  the  pore  spaces. 
T}ie  pore/  :.ipace  may  range  from  y/^  in  a  clean  s?  nd  to  60-70>.  in  a  well 
granulated  clay,  and  80-90/  in  a  muck  aoii  .  The  following  table  gives 


spjnple   figures 

"'t.per   cu. 

ft.    rf 

11      ; 
space    : 

III 

f  water 

%  water   in   soil 
,;at    satur.it  ion 

Dune    sand 
Coaree   sRnd 
Fine    BHndyiLoajn 
it    silt  loam 
Clay 
Humus 

8o-/ 
81 

68 

50 

59 

bo 

32.0 

31*5 
37.0 
b'o  .  o 

40.^', 

39-5 
38.0 
36.0 
5^.5 

113. 


|?0/  of  pore  spRce  per  cubic  foot  gives  30,.;  of  i     ,  The  opti- 
mum content  lies  between  4Q/..'  and  o(X  of  filling  up,  equivalent  to  at.  oat 
2lj/'  of  the  volume  or  l^",/  w.^-ter.  Ordinnry  noil  has  IQ-l^     ,-r  per  cu- 
bic foot. 

1  cu.ft  solid  dirt       -^0/f  water 

1   M   H  water  60|    (or  62.^,i:,  more  precisely) 

1  cu.ft.ciirt  (porous)     75#  wr.ter. 


In   etrting   the  ^ci  stare   content   of    soils  five   different  methods 
•re   been    used.    "rose    ni 

1)  in   terr.s   of  £  Vnscd   on   the   dry  wtd^it   of    the    soil. 

2)  In    t  -  on    th       '  "   .  1. 

3)  In  trrms  of  '      of  volume      •  on  the  tot?.!  volume 
occupied  by  the  soil. 

4}  In  cubic  inches  por  efcbic  foot,  or  cuhic  centimeters  per 
liter  or  '">or  cui  i.  c 

^)  In  inches  in  depth  o:'.     3r  over  the  surface  of  soil. 


140. 


'"or  a  dl     ion  of  the-     .hods  see  Lyon  &  Fipp^n,  pages  138- 


re  readily  xilled  by  inundation,  or  too  much  water,  es- 

pecially wont  fa]      nts.  It  Is  a  Eia-tcr  of  general  experience  that  for 
for  most  f.^TT/i  crovs  the  saturated  condition  of  th  .  soil  is  unfavorable 
to  the  bc~t  development.          ,  of  course,  many  plants  whicli  are 

r.ted  to  'ionr,,  as  for  ux?aiaple  the  swamp  type  of  vegetation. 

About  the  c     enltiYnted  crops  of      sort  arc  rice  ^.icl  cranberries; 

,      r  oak,   .   ,  -  .  j.ress  arid  the  syca-Tiorc  c,^  also  stand 
.  Other  plants  and  trees  will  be  killed  in  one  season  if  flooded, 

•  building  of  a  darn,  no  happened  at  Ann  Arbor  a  couple  of  decad- 
es •=  {o,  on  the  Huron  River. 

Practically  -11  of  the  cormnon  cultivated  crops,  from  vegetables 
to  fruit  t:      3,re  p:i';r;tc:d  to  ;>rov,ing  in  soil  froi;i  *;jich  the  gravita- 
tional moistur."  hso  b  en  removed.  The  gra.yitatioaal  water  is  directly 
injuri;          growth  of  Dies:  plants,  and  its  practical  removal  from 
the  soil  constitutes  the  practice  of  a^ricul  Laral  drainage,  which  may 

as  a  phsse  of  ?oil  nianage^ent.  It  may  therefore  be  stated 
th-'t  grp.vit-'tion-l  --••  -t--r  in  the  root  zone  is  injurious  to  most  farm 
crops,  and  consequently  it  is  in  n  sense  unavailable.  It  is  the  film 
or  cs.pillp.ry     r  which  supports  plants. 


Gravitational  water  nny  be  defined  as  that  portion  in  excess  of 
the  hygroscopic  and  cn.pillary  cppacity  of  a  soil.  It  is  not  reta/ined 
by  the  s^me  forces,  and  is,  therefore,  free  to  move  under  the  influence 
of  gravity,  in  so  f'-r  ae  the  condition  nnd  tlie  character  of  the  soil  will 
permit.  Vhe  amount  of  grc.vi  tio]i--;l  \v-  ter  depends  on  the  total  pore  space 
of  the  soil  on  one  hn.nd,  ana  on  the  total  hygroscopic  n/iu  capillary  ca- 

e  on  the  other  hand.  It  is  the  difference  between  trie  tots!  c 


city  of  tb-?  roil  for  water,  and  thai  hold  in  the  other  tv;o  forms.  It   s 
.•ed  by  Lhn  r,  amount  v#hic}i  will  flow  from  a  soil  havi/,,   11  ito  pores 

ir,h  vnter.  Under  such  conditions  the  soil  is  said  to  be  satura- 
ted. Tho.t  pln,ne  in  the  soil  to  vhich  level  all  of  the  pores  are  filled 
with  v,f-.  ter--r>     ^ed--is  kno\s/n  HS  the  water-table,  'ill  is  region  of  sa- 
tur-"j~.ion  is  rone  Times  kn     •;  the  t4gi»ound-v/ater2. 


Cjr«.vit''';  io 
en  it  exists  • 


-.l  ;  ter  is  directly  injurious  to  upland  crops,  but 
depth  o-f  4-6  feet  below  the  surface,  it  may  serve 


114. 


as  a  resr-rvoir  from  which  moisture  is  withdrawn  by  capiUar/ity,  to  off- 
sot  losses  by  evaporation.   Water  may  be  removed  by  capillarity  from  tfce 
saturated  zone  to  the  point  where  the  loss  is  trking  nlace,  and  under 
the  so  conditions  the  ground  WRter--vrhen  then  becoir  es  capillary  water-- 
is directly  beneficial,  and  the  proc^r-..-:   constitutes  a  form  of  natural 
eub-irri  :.;•"'  ti  »n . 

Hise  of  capillary  water. 

In  this  connections  look  up  the  diagrams  in  Hilgard :  Soils,  on 

04 . 

,er  rises  fastest  in  sand,  from  0.45  mm.  to  15M-l8".  In  salty 
soils  tlir;  rise  is  rapid  and  to  a  grerat  height,  especially  in  the  south- 
western soils  of  lime  and  potash.  In  clay  the  rise  of  crater  is  slow  but 
it  continues  to  a  good  height. 

Soil  lji.se  Time, 

£.&&,$.  &JuVl  4-&.04J&  Ait^      ^2" 

ft&ac&  to.oaj  m).         120" 


Clay  60*  in  250  days 

fine  silt  (0.016  rcm)  120"  in  475  days 

silt      (0.025  mm)  10!;'"  in  300  d<*ys 

fin     ,d  (0.075  ram)  36"  144  days 

(0.3  Tom)  15"  in  180  6 


r-holJin,:   cnp    city  of    Soil. 

.r-lioldir.,j   o-.^aiity  of   soils   Biiould  vary  v/ith   the 
of  ;is.   Pinir  particles  give  a  greater   capacity. 

.Diain.  in  vol. 

n.  cu.in. 

1  -   2  rmn.  3.; 

250  -  50C  microns  4.6 

100  -  170    "  6.0 

10  -  70   "  35.0 

cl-  y   -eked  43.0 

clay  tilled  32.0 

nee  and  movement  of  v«;  tcr  in  soil: 

ter  in  the  soil  is  derived  mainly  from  precipitation.  The 
entrance  of  this  ws-.ter  may  be  hindered  by  ground  cover;  it  may  be  faci- 
litated by  coarse  gr?es  and  a  mellow  stags  (mulch  helps  in  this),  and 
o  prevents  runoff. 

oveiuent  is  soil  is  fastest  in  coarse  sand,  and  slo'v.'est  in 
y.  It  if-  faster  in  the  be^innifi^  and  then  gets  slower;  it  is  faster 
in  ivan:i  th.i.n  in  cold  weather. 

Liquid  water  ie  not  quite  separate  from  capillary  water. 
ler  levels  are  variable. 

vr/oor -tion  frorr  the  soil  may  take  pl?.cu: 

1)  .From  dirt 

2)  Prom  plants  (transpiration) 

«ion  fro/r,  dirt  depends  on: 

1)  Temper-iture.  'I'v/ice  as  raucli  water  will  evaporate  at  65°  F. 
as  at  50°  ?. 

2}  Relative  humidity  of  air. 


115- 


Table 

Given  100  sq.  cm.  of  moist  enrth  12H  deep 
iCvapo ration  per  hour  in  grains 


./incl   blov/s   at 

Sandy 

Clay 

0 
6 
12 
18 
24 

0.25 
3-0 

4.5 

5*5 

6.3 

0.5 

3.0 

4.5 
6.0 
8.0 

Evaporation  also  depends  on  the  lay  of  the  land  and  varies  with 
the  cover.  For  instance,  1H  mulch  may  "be  reduced  1/3  or  4.  It  depends 
on  ho-*  dry  the  soil  is,  and  on  the  tillage.  It  varies  also  with  the 
character  and  also  with  depth—shallow  limestone  soils  "burn  out". 

A  living  cover  invariably  reduces  evaopr^tion  from  the  soil  it- 
self altho  the  transpiration  plus  evaporation  from  the  soil  is  greater. 
The  general  average  precipitation  is  about  30**  2JL  this  50>  evaporates, 
runs  off,  yynd.  Ifffe  is,  unaccounted  for . 


Another  source  of  loss  of  soil  water  is  percolation,  which  is 
the  downward  movement  of  water  by  gravity.  The  amount  of  loss  in  this 
way  is  very  gre-  t;  water  percolates  most  rapidly  in  large  spaces,  and 
whether  these  l^rge  spaces  are  the  result  of  coarse  texture  or  of  a 
loose,  cloddy  structure,  the  final  result  is  the  loss  of  water.  The  rapi- 
dity of  such  loss  id  directly  dependent  on  the  size  and  volume  of  the 
pore  spaces  in  the  soil. 

jl.  Temperature  of  soil. 

Soil  temperature  depends  on  watei*.  sun  and  wind;  on  the  color 
of  the  soil,  and  other  characteristics.  The  factors  affecting  soil  tem- 
perature may  be  mentioned  as  follows: 

1)  Heat  supply 

2)  Specific  gravity  of  the  soil 

3)  Specific  he*t  of  the  soil 

4)  Color  of  the  soil 

5)  Attitude  of  the  surface 

6  Conductivity  of  the  soil 

7  Circulation  of  air  above  the  so  1 

8  Water-content  of  the  soil 

For  further  discussion  of  these  factors  read  Lyon  He  Fippin,  pa- 
ges 4^3-463. 

Water  is  the,  great  regulator  of  soil  temperature.  In  June,  I8b9, 
the  following  figures  were  obtained  (Germany): 


::  Max.  : 

Time 

*  • 

Win. 

:  Time 

Air 
6" 
12H 
24  * 

::  22.5°C: 
::  22.9  : 
::  18.0  : 
::  16.0  : 

2  pm. 
4  pm. 
10  pm. 
6  am. 

*  • 

*  * 

*  * 

*  « 

170 
16.5 
15.7 

:  4  am. 
:  6  am. 
:  10  am. 
:  6  pm. 

Diurnal  changes  practically  disappear  about  3  feet  down  in  the 
soil.  Yearly  changes  may  be  noticed  as  far  down  aa  75  feet.  At  3°  feet 
down  the  temperature  the  temperature  is  about  2°  F. 


116. 


j^.  Aerntion  of  soil. 

There   are    tvo   process  by  v,rhich   aeration   of    the   soil  may   be 
iirprov      : 

1)  Bring  oxygen   into    the    soil 

2)  Take    C02   out    of    tiic    soil 

From  8/  to  10^  of  the  soil  volume  Must  be  air,  to  benefit  gras- 
ses; belo-?  this  point  good  grassen  wither,  and  sedges  and  3MHfijStk  hollow 
stemmed  plants  of  interior  aeration  come  i  . 

Air  ;r.ove!r-ent  lay  be  produced  by  &ny  one  or  more.1  of  the  following 
phenomena : 

1)  r-aseous  duffmnion 

2)  T'o~7'efn-:'>nt  •• 

3 

.j 

4 

5 


CVl~ri"~'  Of  '"          '1C 

Change  of  temper-  lure  in  .a oil  or  a.traor?pher< 
"uction  pr          rind. 


Air  motion  in  the  noil  depend.?,  on  the  soil;  it  is  better  in 
coars      i  tixnn  in  fine  clay.  ATI  experiment  showed  that: 

flowed  1.6  litre  oir  to  pr.r  s  thru; 
';11  tilled  clay  *»llo--/ed  100-4-00  litres  .air  to  pass  thru, 

Air  1-r.ny  occur  ir     ttion  in  r.cil;  ?ir  in  globules  is  very  re- 
nistar.t.  The  amount  of  $£  air  in  soil  depends  directly  on  pore  space  and 
water.  ~!v    "j?l  containing  fjO-6of'  of  pore  apace,  the  air  space  should 
occupy  1;     ,  ^nn  the  remainder  of  th  s  pore  space  should,  be  water.  The 
co:          T  tb~t  ^-ir  in  the  pore  spaces  verier;  it  contains  more 

th---n  thi  cat^ide  air;  it  hni3  ?.  hi  £h  relative  humidity  (often  satura- 
i  i  thf  forest);  t?  .         ;  orally  less  oxygen  and  more  nitrogen 
n  in  tha  outride  «ir. 

The  outeidc  cair  is  by  wei^it:  ?^A  N-,  25^  0. 


ooil  R'Dsorbp  ,^asen.  ?aaily  compressed  £ases  are  eailly  absorbea; 
ammonia  in  n:or   easily  absorbed  than  0  and  JU  A  soil  can  absorb  enor- 
mous amounts  of  CO  _,,  ao  much,  even,  that  it  can  be  leached  cut.  Abeor- 

ion  is  helped,  by*"  the  presence  of  mineral  compounds  in  the  noil.  The 
three  colloids  mofit  important  in  aiding  absorption  in  the  soil  are  clay, 
humus,  and  iron  oxides. 

Oxygon  is  necessary  for  bacteria  action,  deficient  air  gives 
reductive  fermentation,  *nd  waptoe  nitrogen  salts, 


H  this  point  -re  will  digress  from  Mr.  Roth  and  insert  some  dis- 
cussions of  this  matter  of  soil,  froin  ?.!r.  Lei^  J. 


does  seven  things  for  the  forest  cover: 

1)  Oivea  mechanical  support 

2J  -Vurninhes  v/ator 

3)  Furnishes  mineral  plant  food 

4)  burnishes  organic  plant  food 
5J  Furnishes  free  oxygen 

6)  Temp  err- tare 

7)  T/ust  be  absence   of   poisons    (alkali). 


117- 


Soil  is  apt  to  "be  deficient  in  potash  (K)  and  phosphorus  (P). 

There  are  3  classifications  of  soil: 
1)  Physical. 

Texture,  sine  o."  particles:  gravel,  r.r.nd,  silt  ,  clay. 

2}  Chemical 

ind,  lonrn,  clay,  etc. 

In 

.11=3  in  pl??ce;  transport       .uti,  water,  ice,  or  gravity. 

;  thre;s  main  constituent!3  of  soil  are:  cant?,  clay  and  humus. 
Loarr.  ic      :.l  i'cnej;      may  contain  all  three  constituents. 
ieultur-'l  soil;  1  2-2j  million  grains. 

Origin  ci>        »cn«ti:  '•:»?  c:i  ossified  according  to  their  trans- 
porti;- 

llurialJ  by  ",«--.  tor:  fine,  stratified. 
Colluvial:  by  gravity:  coarse. 

j)        .  "by  wind:  very  fine. 
•\1;  by  ice:  irrsgule*. 

So  i  1      -  s  : 

1)        le  soil  •.':'-;.  ter  ) 

tion  )  Important  factors. 

lure  } 

0  ess  of  "i*:  tor  to  pi  ^.n  t  s  . 

1)  CV     lly:  furni;3}ies  0  ?.?nd  N. 
ration  current  . 

An  B     3?  ^ood  forest  uoes  pOOO,?  water  per  year  chemically  and 
-7b'0  tonr     :e-^r  for  tr-  r,i  ?ire.  tion  currents.  /-.  beech  in  Europe  lost 

10  torus  of  --tor  per  day  during  the  grov/in^  sear.on.  A  layer  Of  1*  of 

v/ater  over  an  aero  weisha  113  tono. 

ter  ia  loot  to  plants  in  three  ways: 

1}  aun-off 

2;      .-  -tioii  froK.  soil 


3}   Water  that    sin/.o   inlo    Uia   ^ro-ind  to    tlio  water-  table   ( 
lon)  . 

:oodo   transpire  iauch  mo  re   v.'nt.er   t)ian   conifer  a,    as   a   class, 
latter  have   shallow  root    aystei/is  and  arc   able  to   live   on  less 

. 

A/aount  of  \vater  UISGU  on  Forest,  and  Farm 


jjocation   :  Tens  dry  natter:  Indies  vator 
:           :  produced  per  A  :  needed  par 
: ;   per  year ; year 

;  Forest    :     1-^        :      2-7 
;  Farm  4-9        :     16-40 


Factors  affecting  available  ooil  moisture: 

1)  Precipitation 

2)  Catchment  \ 

3)  'ater  holding   capacity   of    soil 
4}     Evaporation  from   soil 

5 |         ter  withdrawn   by  plant   roots 

Ability  of    soil    to   raise  water  by  capillarity  ana   other 
mo  ..s.    Jlei^ht   of   water- table. 

7)    ifridergrourid   seepage 


1)  Precipitation  is  affected,  by  g«o.r*r?».T)h.lcpl  loo-r-tion  and  topo- 
phy. 

2}  Cat&runent  /<  isa  i.     of  all  precipitation  Actually  entering 
,/il.  It  depends  on; 
.  Joii  cover. 

b)  Degree  of  slope.  '•  ivr^ter  slope  hfl    or;  runoff  and  there 
fore  a  email  e  r  c       ...  ;  , 

c)  Texture  of  soil. 

d)  Character  of  precipitation.  4= 

Auio  un  t 

Mature  (  sudden,  fant,  or  glow) 
e;  Character  of  ^ro'ind  surface 

plowed,  baked,  dusty,  etc  . 


3,      r  holding  capacity  of  soils. 

-ilia  depends  on  texture,  depth,  «nd  amount  of  or^ajde  Batter 
'.'  s  soil, 

texture  may  be  considered  in  two  parts: 
a)  Physical  composition:  si^e  of  particles. 
Consistency  of  soi"'  .  : 
_i  density  of  particle  arrangement 
iT  structure  of  soil 

i  locculent,  simple,  compound,  etc. 


Floccuiency  decreases  the  water  holding  capacity  of  soil 
it  increases  tlie  air  spaces;  the  resulting  ventilation  is  the  desirable 
feature  of  flccculent  Boil,  especially  in  clay.  Clay  is  the  cementing 

it  oi  the  particles  and  crumbs  in  clf?y  and  loam;  calcareous  material 
in  sand  protases  tiie  snm^  effect. 

occurs 

pillary  water/,  in  smaller  D«r»e  spaces  or  oft<-;n  as  forming  a  film 
about  hygroscopic  water,  the  films  clinging  to  particles.  Capillary  wa- 
ter is  available  to  plant  roots;  hygroscopic  water  usually  is  not. 


or  hydrostatic  water  occurs  in  the  larger  pores  in  the  upper 
oo  1  .  It  sooner  or  later  gravitates  toward  the  water-  t".l>le.  In  an  imper- 
vious layer  is  present  above  the  water  table  the  WRtsr  gathers  just 
ove  this  layer. 

Hygroscopic  water;  film  digging  to  particles. 

Hydrostatic  water:  free  or  gravitional  water  moving  down  to  the 
water*  table. 

Water  holding  capacity  of  soil  is  effected  by  pore  upace  'tmd  the 
size  of  soil  particles.  The  arrangement  of  particles  affects  the  pore 
space  (s  e  page  107).  ^0  s^ize.  of  the  particles  theoretically  has  no 
effect  on  pore  apace.  3aft&  Small  particles  really  tend  sornev/}iat  to  more 


119 


surface,  because  they  are  li$it  and  not  packed  down  by  gravity. 

a  average  dry  soil  requires  4(*-6w  of  r^in  to  saturate  the  first 

foot  of  surface  soil  or  from  20-32$  per  cubic  foot.  One  cubic  foot  of 

ordinnry  ^n,rden  soil  loara  has  about  1  sere  or  surface  exposed  by  the 
partic :  en. 

Amount  of  surface  is  important  because: 

iSttS 

TJ  More  surface  »  more  capillary  wstor. 

2}  Cher?ic*>.l  effect  on  ourfrcc  ir-i  £re"i--r  with  greater  surface 
of  particles . 

.  r-holdin[f  capacity  is  of  txto  kinds: 
1}     ..laum:  when  saturated. 

2f  I'inimum:  contains  only  capillary  water;  this  is  the  usual 
-^cily      i  unlens  o  th  3 r-vi  s ?  c^ 


nsil.y  of  -r rrr;n,;xi?';ent  of  soil  particles: 

Increases  minimum  -winter  holding  capacity,  therefore  cultiva- 
tion decreases  v»a  trrho3  ding  capacity. 

reel?  of  forest  cover:  "Plocculstion  in  noil  increased  "by: 
ixture  of  organic  life, 

2)  'Action  of  root* 

Ch.'lc'i  )  °»ons  u*>  a»«u«d- 

3)  Cover  favor*  orgrnic  life,  a».«  nacteria. 
4}  Cover  favors*  underground  anixrale, 

'"vaoor^tion  is  affected  "by  4  f^ctorr: 

1}    Climate:    tempcriture, humidity, wind. 

•il:    neture:    text  u  r  e, ,  d  e  p  th  t  c^o^l  o^r ,  a  a  1 1  s  v/ith   affinity  for 
wat>    •. 

3)  Cover:    vegetation,    humus,    etc. 

4)  Topof^phy:    nlop*,    erpopure. 

Relation  of   Evaporation   to   Relative  Humidity  ana  lemperntuc. 


Relative  hurndity 

Ave  .  Temp  . 

Am*t    H'vajp.per 

day 

1  If 

a  84 

10.7°C 
12.0 
17.0 

«0.24  Ecra. 
50.  40 
.50.^0 

4$  7^F 
79 

89 
91 

17.6°C 

117.7 
f  17.0 

S  17.2 

,.0.93  Jran. 

e  0.62 

§0.36 

<w  n    '>c,' 

u               -q;  v  •  <--> 

Effect  of  Texture  or  '?vq..por-".tlcri 


Egg 

aller 

volumes. 

— 

Soil 

m 

«                .4. 

irae 

:      ?.   of 

Yol, 

^  t  *•  1  r 

....•  v.      U     V   X  ^ 

}3     Of 

sue  c  GO 

siv« 

?I:/A  : 

:    1  o  07" 

:    5>y"- 

QC1'"-* 

:    t  lj/..- 

:    80/, 

;    '^ 

x  O/     : 

Lirr.e    3¥\nd 
Course    sifted  } 

:    16 

days 
days 

i    1330 
:   19/6 

23.603 

:2219 

:l?51 

:2^42 

:1?03 
:246l 

:lb6o 
:  2625 

•1C 

\2i 

300   : 

6  days  difference. 
The  figure-;?  in  the  table  are  the  evaporation  per  1000 
surf.->C3  exuoiKi   in   ra^s. 


120 


•iffect   of   Till  inn:   of   Soil   on     \vapo ration 


« 

7    p.  o  „      I, 

j.i  -i  fc>  o    •- 

or  acre 

:                   Soil 

Tilled 

:      Untilled 

Time 

:    Clay 
:    vindy   loam 
;    heavy   loam   (clay) 

129      obis. 

77 
158 

:    167     lob  Is. 
:    172          * 
:    l8p          * 

7   days 

7  ^spye 

7    days 

:           Average 

121    1/'1H 

:    179i       M 

Iran  spire   froxr;   2'>G   to   '/!>C    tuns   of   water  per  acre   per  year. 
mitt  v/iLh   <..-  /ci.]>i.:r-itiun   experiments: 


ru 


.is 


dopt.. 


of  1  ft.  2.37/y  per  day  per  sq.ft. 

2  ft.  2.10 

3  ft.  l. 

4  ft.  0.91 


n  diatinct  decreaae  of  evaporation  fro.a  i 


In  £3neral  the  -     -i1  tree  roots  do  not  go  aown  n-ore  than  3  ^ 
-  n^>  .  On  the  av-      the  wnuer  table  io  about  20  ft.  below  the  sur 
i:e  in      soila.  Vhis  lea/oa  a  gap  between  the  roote  r-nu.  the  water 
table. 


of: 

Meeting  Available  3oil  V/ater: 
1)  Precipitation 
2}  Cat  clanen  t 
Joil          a)  slope 

receives      u>  character  of  precipitation 
c/  soil  cover 

dJ  character  of  aoil  (chiefly  physical; 
e)  character  of  surface  (frozen,  dusty,  eie.; 
Soil        3)   ater  hoidir;^  capacity 

holds         a;  texture  (pore  ^pace  anu  surface  of  ^>:  r-^fcies,  etc.  ) 
"b)  uepth 

c)  amount  of  organic  matter 
4)  .^vapor'  lion 
Soil          a)  aoil  cover 
loses         b)  climate 


i  i  .  temperature 
iii  .relative 

c)  topo^-fapiiy 
i^.  slope  ana 

d)  soil  factors 
JL.  texture 

lri   color 
ojLJL.  depth 

iv   oliaractsi-   of   surface    (rou^i   or 
(      £  amount   of   water   already  in    rjoil 
(    j/i.  ciiemical   composition 
(  y_i  i.  certain   so^.     »X<     op.lts 
J>  )    Amount   withdravm  by  plant   roots 
6)   Replacement   of  raaJtife^A  water  by  capillarity. 
a)   Rise  from  water   table 
i   depth   of   water   taole 


121. 


6)  P0  ii  texture 

i^i  Arrangement  of  soil  lasers 
b)  "Equalization 
i.  texture 

7)  Underground  seepage  thai  comes  near  surface  ~.t  foot  of 
slopes,  etc. 


now   return   to     'r. 

J)    Chemistry       '       iil.{aa     mi 

?j.    l.T^ovtanCG    of    &ft&tt.0j  it   food    in    ;>oii. 

f    l-itoj-est   to   UFJ   iy   t  ..oant   of  plant  food   in   the 

soil,    ho1?  lonr   it    --ill   last,    --nd  how  beat   to   replace   i«,    i>o   not   favor 
the   extreme   notion   that    the   physic  idition   of   the   soil   io  more   imp- 

ortant   th  chariic--.!    condition. 

Forest    t  /it   foods,    less  of   chemical  materi- 

als,   PJTK  ri         eh   to    th  .1.   But    they  are   grateful  for  sup- 

plies,   nnd    r  :  ly  to  vils.    -ror  nur series  we   always  want 

good    Roil. 

2>.    Pore«t    vs.    other  crops   with   respect   to    chemical   needs. 

•re   the  test   growth   of    timber  and  vegetables. 

Fertile   1-nd    is  noceonary  for   profit.    The    soil   replenishes   chemical 
ri' tfcrinl  •;    rat'ior   clcv/ly.   Hopkins   in   Illinois    studied   the   problem  as   to 

ither  :s  v/oald  last   in   i^e   soil;   he   claims 

th-*    the    euppli    i:    1;  .  .vioul ture   is 

oils   will,    j  ;  up,    but   only  if   Uie   farmers   do 

thing  by   fchfj   soil.    Qiina  hao  gooa   soil,    and   it  ii^.s  been  kept 
7  400  ra   of    silling   (Illng  of   "is.}. 

!   lean   of   pineries   evon   wie  fo  ,r  must  Iiandle   the   soil   care- 

fully to   let; op   it   in    ^ood   contition.    3ut  generally  he   need  not  bother 


•out    t} 


ondi  tl    .  aoile 


Tnble 


te  rials 

Bicli  dark 
land:    Cal. 

*           4    i    O         *•*'"*(£'."• 

1               J-      J»  Vv   •       »«*   .4.  A  i  V- 

1-ilvi 

^iicii  red 

land:    Hawaii 

insoluble  rraaterial 

t? 

95-6  ; 

15*80 

terials 

silica 

1$.OO^M19  ) 

0.8  £ 

14  .  00>- 

Dotaiji 

o.6y 

0.12 

0.45 

2.11 

0.00 

0.26 

Kg 

^.2o 

,  .4 

0.67 

I-^e    peroxiue 

5*23 

0.22 

^c"'.  Olj 

AloOo    ? 

7.40 

0.4^> 

14.6 

V  i 

Phoajpiioric   acid 

0.071 

0.09 

0.19         1 

j      ah 

iB 

3.  Ob 

mere    trac« 

3*35 

eh 

litrogen 

O.b? 

r.                   <| 

u.ii 

2iydrocco7>ic  ii^o 

10.70 

lees-- 

18.5 

gures 

.d  be 
checked   up. 


C;,  the   riL-ovc    soila   with    e^.oli   other.    Lime   takes    the    control- 

ling position   clje.'fiically;    clay,    humus,    *.nd   iron    salts  are   important 
phycicallj.       i  th    tiieae   four   present    tho    noil    cantdo   r.7ith   n    comparatively 
smnll  t    of   j  1». 


122, 


;-:o:.l  thru  is  poor  in  its  physics  is  apt  to  get  poor  in  its 
che;  -     :    ;.  one  :,h'\t  is  poor  on  its  chemistry  is  poor  in  ite  physics 
and  io  hnrci  to  mnk'.>  r:ood. 

cK  Ability  of  forestur  to  remedy  soil  tiia.tia  chemically  poor. 

The  forester  does  not  fertilize  or  do  anything  with  the  che- 
mic^l  concition  of  the  soil      ,-:  n  .ral  tiling.  He  affects  the  physical 
condition;  he  .keeps  a  good  stanu  of  timber  and  humus,  ana  thiM  results 
also  in  _cai  condition,  besiucs  proviuin^  pro  uoc  Lion  to 

.  and  soil  oovc  .•  . 

/:  natural  be  I     mt  oic  .  and  ^oil  by  protection,  increas- 
ing -nipility  of  timber,        ,  ,...,  ..udei^i-ov/t^,  resulting  in  the  so- 
called  "C1.L     orcat  . 

£.  d  by  soil  a.  ^.nd  plants. 

e  :"ollov_     ..  ;ur*«  ftrti  ^iven  for  northern  countries  (Not 

the  trox  i  c   : 


O.v  j-jiniiii'ajfl   for   upel'ajL   agriculture. 

0  .  .         "    "  ;       Oil  " 


Ich   are   wet,    c^n   uu   witli  leba  A;    such  are  Hawaii, 
the  ,  udii,    and    ^JLC    ^0^1..  cm        r*,   of 

1,-    is   alkali   lands. 


iO'jpliorio   aciu:   minimum  lor  j£0£a   results 


..1  ,.     nitrogen:   minimum  for   good  farming. 

:    rjaxi;:iuw  ,    rich. 


0.1  ;  iirne:  ininimmu  for  sandy  land. 

0.      «  :  clay 

f.     /ffects  of     alts   on   :,oil.      \v7aat  do    the  salt  a  do   fot  the   soil 


Lime-  c-..rooriai*c  it-  -"h..".uiiy  uiaGolveu  by  wiiter  cont4ining  ^1/2,  and 
Is  readily  distributee:  thru  the  soil.  Lime  produces  floccula- 
tion  of        ,1  bo  tii  produces  and  assists  in  tlie  conuition  of  tilth., 

.ice.  In  dry  lands  it  also  acta  as  a  cement   to  hold  the 

particles  together.   It  helps  to  form  crumbs  of  soil,  making  larger  open- 

ings and  helping  the  movements  of  wvter  .in  a  nir.  It  makes  the  soil  mellow 

PS  aeration  anil  water  movement.  About  2,  of  lime  is  sufficient  for  th< 

9  O  x  1  . 

riiicrl  lime  helps  to  maintain  the  neutrality  of  soil  by  binding 
the  acicia  which  form  in  the  soil;  it  uelps  bacterial  life  ana  the  devel- 
opment of  hurr.us.  It  is  a  necessary  ingredient  of  soil  with  direct  nitro- 
ring  by  bacteria;  this  is  rlso  true  of  tubercle  bacteria.  Otlier- 
v/ise  t'nerc  v;oulc.  be  no  ^ork.  It  helps  to  make  plant  food  available,  espe- 
1  ly  if:  i      to  pctPs>:  and  phucphoric  acid,  it  offsets  the  injurious 
effects  of  r.n^nesia  anu.  the  aiAiilios;  g>peur«.  iy  ruuch  usea  in  this  respecl 

;j:j;;i;      .ount  of  l,i:;.e  for  ^ood  effect  ie  8/.  ;  above  this  point  lime 
itself  beco;r,efj  injurious  to  the  soil. 

nesia  is  one  of  our  import'int  incredients  in  Uie  soil;  it  is 
more  i.op-       in  the  eastern  United  States  than  in  the  v/est.  It  acts  in 
the  soil  as  lirce  d.)«o,  in  looner.i/i.^  it  for  air  and  water.  It  enters  as 


123. 


a   re*i^ent    in   freeing    p  -ic   n.cid   rind  making   it    -vr  liable,    "but    it 

readily  becomes    n   nuisance.    L'.uch  jna^rKJcia   is   injurious    to    the    soil.    It 
is  mischievous   to   plnnt    ,-r-..     .    ,    es.iecial.ly   if   th«    ao.'.  1   "be   deficient   in 
.    It  may   interfere    with    imbibition    (?). 


Insoluble   residues    («lliCAt«»)    vary   in   Inr&e   lii.-.i^s;    thny  are 
greater   in  huriid   than   in   arid  .ri.-'a. 

id    cnst   vJ-3rt   B^'/.    of    indi  a  soluble  ra.-iteriala. 

L  ibl  .     -  -  wcvirxls. 


jrn  i)  it    in   rivery   soil. 
1'uch   of   the-  a   from   el  rs. 

Potaal  >da    :o   r                         ,    solution,    act   us   rengonfcu   in    tlae 

soil,  12                  of   decor  :,poeition   rmd   recom- 

pcsiticf.s.    In  ari  ;                                         to    ft€                             .j.Jlphlates  and   eoda 

phosphate,  oil,     I           -^ying  the   floceulcnca    of             .-oil, 

••me  >ct    -    .,             ;:.iGC}iiev/ous  both  pliysically 

>)i"n    .  of   the   torup  crate   zone,    especially 

i    noils   in  1/Kii'i   are   good;    they  raay  have   a  low  % 

of   *   ..                  ,                       ;  adi/ig  opposes 

alic^li   f  •                                 :.          ;  oil  :b  .  cam 

1}    It   decreases   ^vriporation  ana  prevent  3   the   alkali   from  gath- 

er i  j                                   r   til  e    3  u  ,  1   in  e  xc  e  ^  s  i  ve   run  o  tin  1  3  . 

.'COL   of  .  t  .  >n  of    ti-.v...    is   increawea  and  bring 

level  I-*    ::;iv  LL    the   deposition   of   alkali   at 
-  •    ,  . 


£.  una  13.  ta    in   the    ?:o:l    on   ^ra^ing   areas. 

cerra  IIUKUS    .  o    to    the   entire  mass   of   decayed   vegetation 

on    the    to  _r:ce   plant  r.if.tcri^lo   in   the  huiaus   r:.re    coniplex  producte 

of    ;  /  ns    the   kind,     ^roporiion    r>/id    ni  io   Io,.v.r   orga- 

this   decay  ana   the   conditions   under  ivhich   they   work.      The 
'.  ity   of   luu-ius   i-    del    rmined    :.,.     tho   nature   of    tl^e   original   plant  mater- 
condition   of   dec-'.y.    The   identity  of   plant   life   io   lost   in 
Is   significant   of   t;        I     .-ortance   of  humus. 

3  cipy  be    coiix-idered   ay   a    "3tre-^   of  material"    compared   with 
litutijt:    oi'    the     jull. 


7i   nitrogen   of    the   soil   is  held  almost   entirely   in    the  humus.    Th€ 

;,lilj    of  e   in   a   ^raaa   lands    r.:0il   ia   J-^/  • 

>0-,  .  is   t>/.'t;anic    C. 

.146?)     -i£r4>  tl      JSJ.    Very   low;    o.ry  ^.o.»,l    surface. 

(0.066?)      0.166,:,    :f      rt  "'     W.    Subsoil. 


in    an   old  niondow  you  nay   often   find    0.;^          .  low 

only  iBodc-r-te   grov/tli    texture   influences   decay.    1'he,  presence   of 
mfavo  to    th  cay  of  )un..     .       ie  low  nitrogen  supply 

due   to    t  .nil  proportion   of   clover   cov-sr. 


Conciitiora   of  huriut;;    the    el-j^ents   in  IX^HUL;  n.'-y   be   uivided   in    two 
grc  able   in  d  insoluble   in     Ikali   ^&ii.fr.  solutions,    'i^he   aoluble 

lly   richer   ir.   l«   and   is   often  more   inilaontial   on   the    soil 

inriolublt.'   ^ro    ..  -     -oiuc  MOU-JIT.  wrl  confine    the   use 

of   the   terra    "humuo"   to   this  .ciore    soluble   division   of  hun.ua  matt  --..v.  .Less 
thnn     .  I  huniurs    is  .          -         -s   fort.,  ing  •-4.29;;;   in 


124. 


humus   of    tfr-  (>.•». 

Cultivated   l--:nd:    soluble  -ir  l.i    (nil:.)    form   '?$/     in    the  humus. 

art    of    the   huraua  ia-iy   exint    in    ihe    soil    in    corn   i  nation     .ith   lime 
and   ol;  ,    beconing    soluble    only  af  tc  .  ction   occurs. 

In    gr  land   only   33«50    o^    !•'  (     l  :  '-racted   rith   ^.cicL  . 


is    land   v  in   d..  n'C   ar 

'Jot  ^1  organi<  -      . 

acj  .8-1. 

need?  roper  lion   ift   i  o   the   cjnoant  of   free  huraic 

acid 


K;    Biology  of   th<>    :;cil. 

.-oil    .  i    :t    in   regard    to    the  dt  cay  and  pro- 

Btion  ,  ,       riti   the  action  of  bac'ccria.    Study  why 

c^rtr-iti    r;o  :          Lo   certain    U  :         i  .;onft   know  yet   &urely;    analyses  do 

not    '-.Iv-'aya   e>.  rerytl. 


Clr-  --cial].         j  sture   ?xnd  temperature)    f;nd  >"ooa  Materials 

I    pre   the  most    it.  portrait   factors   in   determining   UJB   life   in 
the  tj;e   founcirtion   of   Soil  Biology. 

.re  are  Tour  a^cir-a  to  te  considered  in  Loil  I'.iolo   . 

t  eria 

b.       cut  cue  fun^i 
£.      or  plants  and  their  effect  on  soil 

:  i  . 


a.    Bacteria. 

tevia   preourtinate  mostly  in   rich    tillec,    soils,    v;hich   con- 
:  Lc    lifo.    'lliei    arc   lesu   in  'forest    soils,    but   £&&&  this 

varit-a.    Kev.rly  all  brvcterir-   crc   sensitive   to   lijit;    i.hey  vary   in   oxygen 

li  ,  .       u   it    in   ^oijcrfil;    they   pro    neneitivc   to    chs.nsfej-?   in 

moi.  •    concitione,         -       i<     in    very  dry   conuiLions.    All  bacteria  have 

tor.^u    Vhey  are    sensitive    to    the   action   of    acids;    sour  humus 
•'rr  lively  free  from  bac-eria. 

cteria   excell   in   h  ,<.\^..^\,  -..ion   ano.   u*tili/;-.aiun   of   all   fori.;e   of 

ir.on^    ihcicselV'..  i-;   ay    to    wheir    /orkan^;   torapt.rn.ture,    from 
to    very  hieUi    L    sr.pcr    ^uic&;    some   are   capable   of  much  higher 
are    th  --.-.  r*    Oti 


-.cteria  life   is   ^enc-rally   v.ell   uietribu^ea   tliru   soils   except 
under  peculiar   conditions,    v^here   they   secrete    something  which   is   detri- 
tal    to    tlxefiiselves  beyond   a    certain   point;    oruinjirily   tliey  are   asso- 
o  it3/   other   or&ani3ij-B   vliich  ciay  work  over   these    secretions  ana   thu 

.    Thus  bacteria  may   Lc   oc.  tive   in   a   BGnse.    Vliese   secre- 

tione   are   hj.ov?n   as    toxin  ,ti-to;:i. 

.•r;e   bacteria   needing  o>:y^cn  r.;ay  be   CGaociauec.  -/ith   others  which 
rict   need   oxygen   and   v/hich  r;.rty   j.  erh«^r.«t-   e1  ui   prodacu    it    r.s   a  by-product 


/tr.n   change,    due    LO    uciapera^ure   and  moisture   changes: 
1}   Hinds   in   soJl 

ortion  of  kinds 

3)  Total   nuyther 

4)  Activity. 


125- 


The  bulk  of  bacterial  action  tnkes  place  In  the  upper  12M  of 
gs  or  agricultural  lands;  in  forer.ta  it  goes  i  little  deeper.  Bacteri 
•ye  abound,  in  lr..r^e  numbers,  ?Sien  present;  the  greatest  number  per 
centU.fcter  in  rich  clay  was  600  million  b^cterir;  tne  upper  inch  usually 
contains  ..loct.  The  abundance  of  bacteria  varmes  widely,  even  in  adjacent 
localities,  <~nd  yields  from  soili?  vnry  in  rbout  the  r     ,-roportion. 

-production  of  "bacteria  is  v,rry  rapid:  cell  civision  may  be  com- 
-,lcteu  i/;  _>0  minut  J,          .,.-;;  id  produce  JO  generations  in  24  hour 
if  en.rriet-.  on  continual!./.  t  nu  of  the  c:a^f  values  of  stable  manure  is 
the  fact  uitf  ret     bacteria  life  in  the  soil  (Hilgard 

,    t\vo        i  3       Vrctc: 

i;  -:f    organic  'ial    i/  l.^oth   r>riimn.l   and  plant. 

2}    Secretions   act   on   inorgnnic  minerils   both   physically  and 

cherr.icnl  the   nitro^n    -up^ly   in  soil. 


•ct^ria  Biay   ije    Divided   irjtu  .-jccirairi^   to    the   work   they  dfl 

i;.    .  n    cellalcsc,    chiefly  by  fermentation. 

2/    :;ccc;.'-;^se   protein  bcdi       •  •   action   occur?,    in   all    soils, 

.tter  of   £.11   3ci.vj 

litrifying  bacteria;    a   very   ccir^ion   forto.      I         need   lots   of 
nir   to   c      '       an   thei]  "  ,  require   a   tercp«i  -    of   over  ^0°  I 

Tiie   soil  be   cither  neutral   or   alkaline.    ?hn  «    Dacteria   prefer   soil 

v?ith   ;'lGntj'    oi1   li::'o   and   organic  food.    They  use    tl:a   free  nitrogen  of   the 

•i  i  r  . 

4,  •;  t-,  :rclci  bactcrJ.".:  take  free-  nitroc  n  ^r-o  "bJnf^  it;  they  ao 
title,  o;,i   j     Abiotic  rel-.UioriS.  Th^y  an  figl  myC<   '  ;*,  as  some  people 
have  Tnifi;  ht.  They  ar«  fo  1    .iefly  on  the  Leguminoaft*,  arid 

.       .-/Jhe  tuborcl      13     '      .i:',  :;  they  then  cease,  be- 
.-  -  --  ,   nd  are  absorbed, 


.rily  .  (.cteria    take  nitro£en  fr  --oil,    and  are  very 

L«y   do   not   do    very   ruuol:   uar^cr,  ae    they   ar-.-   not   plentiful,    anc 
en   only   under   certain   conditions. 

Other  groups   •••-^e   aul^liur  bacteria,  iron  bacteria,    etc. 

•    ,-roJC3   of  bnc.  the    isoil;  tliey   occur  by  tone,    ever  actii 

ready   to    do   a   variety   of   thiri^a   vith  or^.nic   tilings.    They  accom- 
pli             I"         ;idou-3    'u'.iuunt    of           " 


. 


b. 

These  fungi  s.rc  more  common  in  fcrer,t  or  uutilled  so^l  than 
in  the  fan&ei'fa  tillaa  law  -    --   -  ^'^Ipa  to  vlimBte  tha»,  7hcir  chief 
valu^  lies  in  the  di-c.          ->n  of      iiQ  natter;  Die  formation  of 
us  is  largely  due  to  fuiifci  .  They  penwtrate  theu  the  soil  ami  distri- 


ir  fil  ^»feB«i-y   evenly    thru   tl  il,    h€  to   feea  other 

fun        ,»;llo"'intj  the  ;-cil. 


.    mor«   :   ..-;    i    in   the  mulch   of  hrvrdvoud:-    Lhnn  vith   conifen 
The   liT;    -ma  ^ruv/th  of  funrji   are   almilar   ^o   that  of   bacteria,   bui 
ore   limited.    They  need  or^.nic,    ?md   arc  helpleas  v/ith   inorganic  ma- 
:v    are   largea    and  men  .....  'outli   th-^.n  are  b* 

ria.    They   ta3  .frjanic  m«t€-rial    (and   ccimcnt    it)    only  thru   a   dis- 

tinct 'process,    leaving  till   job   for   another  fungus    to   '.--ork   over   in   the 
x  t    step   c  f    dec  o^rp  o  s  i  o  i  o  :i  . 

gi   livv:   part    of   ttieir   lift    In    -  11,    and  part   as   parasites 


126. 


on   plarjL.-  ,    H      <  itli    the   rut  •<!    wauti  .    V    •.  ,  ••    50    thru-,   regular   life   cycles, 

wit)  i   r»lternf-'  t'j    ^eTier^tio 


Al^ne   in    the    soil   n.r  t    in   cold    or  hu^id   countries 

"but  able   to    live   in   tho   tropic.:'..    Symbiotic   r-vln  t.io;.:s  mark   the   first 

I    .  -.i.1   scounuln  ti 


£.  riant  rj.  This  tppie  v;as  passed  over. 

a.. 

Th-  ::onsidere-.-    iu    gjrc    pt.J 

1)  Livl-  _____    •>.'.    ..io/   li:^.»    aa   the  inci-.:,    i^.tjfch  worms,    and 

p  -  ;.'      . 

2)  Living   in   tiie    ooil  #?.rrt   of    vh^r   111  /c  .    an  Junebug,    and 

1     OOii. 

3)  :-ir  A.9^L.  jLu  .  jund  but   fee-uu./^   ;  •.i;CY.e   the 
gro   nd:    burr<                            .     .         ..              ,.      ,  -.,    etc  .4   bumble  bees. 

.  ir    tj       .  round  for  food:    from   the  beetle   to   the  hog; 
lizaru,    Q          ,  ,       tc, 

'T-  '  «1   to    the;   coil: 

1}  .   jrnic  notarial   of   II,  e    t;oil   ana   tranoform 

•••l!.eLiicr.=  l   form. 

Oil,      o  ../r,    ground    squirrel. 
s    thru  wliich  wflter  and    roo-      ]     .-  a  for  a 
,     '-'feet.  r  rriovojaont  .         -       ,       •  ";          ,    *;tc. 

nure    fro;          .re^t-nt,    r.nc    alec   le   deccjnp02ition 

.Btiri^   experiment   t?l,e   1    squf*rr-   ^/.'>rd   of   earth  and    see 
!.<.  •  o   jou   CPH   fine. 


Is   develop  rapidl^  ,    are  bi^;  ecitei^',        -   short  lived, 
as  moth  .    Die   worms  hr<.ve  been  i.cet   otudied  of   these  forms  of   life. 

Tlie  ~a;   bacteria   ev:.  i>  where;    they  are   jr>ost   common 

in   U-«-    fanner's   til  virtu.    Tropical    c?  rthworme  are   Irrger;    lengths 

12"   pro    ruit-          iinon   ther    .       53   n  been  ..  yoh   studied   in 

.  7-.t   .-  :id   c}.tv?   up   I./   of  dry  leaves   in  1   year. 
1    --ere    ol  od      sho^l"    ^ivc   2   tono   of   leaves   (bfeech);    It   tone   of 

m   1   acre;    agpuine   ^000    :-.q.^  r  aero;    this;   jivt.s  C.^'   per   sq. 

.    ,  c   only  20   ear  ch\;orjLi3   to  \vork   this  material   ovei 

ii.    of  >  ,  yjculu  be    able    to   £UOr<-     Ljiaii    trice    care   of   all    thnt 

i.    Sucli  figures  as  thct?^  brin^   the  actual   conditions 
•,'ividly    to   our  cdnd    . 

j   in    the   tj,  .    They  a*e   ijcrt:    coruiion   in   loam. 

titudu    fictiac   to  have    soru    ifftct   on   vo  rr.it-:,    t»,s    thetse  figureo 
\vill    inc«J 

In    Switzerland;      at   4000  f  :      £-AJfc&^.t 

ow:  6400   anii.ir-lH,    lnoluc:)ig  4CO   worrus. 

forest:  4^00   ani.r;.rls,    including  ^00  v/ornis. 

-t  6000  f  : 

.-w:    13^0  tan     ,   r.cluding  6l  worms. 
forest:     ^1CO  «nii;inlpf  including  ICO  7,forruS. 

Insect  r,      ,};cir  Inrvae,  a.;'  tho  June^ug,  iar.l;e  passages  in  the 
•  nd  to  n  c  ;  tht?oe  pocket  H  frequently  fill  up.  Ants  and 

mny  nlt.o  "       .    d. 

n     discouragoa  insecti.-,   ..  ,  ;,  the  removal  of  crops,  and  other 


12?. 


oonditiona  fnvoring  or  discouraging  insects   or  animals   in   t}ie  field  as 
against    tho   forest.    The  ho  •    formerly  used   very   extensively  by   the 

f  orestc  r. 

.':i,rhor  animal  a. 

,  voles,  etc.  "break  the  ground,  and  "break  up  the  n-.ulch. 

Cattle  QHt  reproduction  ana  trarnpl   thin  go  dovrn  into  the  ground.  In  soft 
so-1  they  tramp  down  hard;  they  make  trails,  stir  up  mulch  and  work  it 
down,  which  retards  deeav  .  Sheep  '          -r-o  more  injurious  to  the  fo- 
t  than  are  cattl  . 
.n: 

£&  ib  Vv.fr,  irji  1.,  -  r;t.ial  in  i-oil.  It    .i£en  both  its  physics 

/.  tillage  mello*TF  and  improves  plov/ed  soil,  tut  neglects 
ri  ;.-      jw  it.  i^io'/in^  may  nrocsuce  *o  ^raat  ^  change  in  roil 
tha  ,  .,  refus--  to    ,  .en.  Continued  tillnt;c  modific,  the 

coil,  the,  .  idt  r-,I      favorably. 

•'tirt.:     ..i  is  one  thni  i-f  c?xlin.u3ted  for  crops  requiring  cer- 
nts,  .-is)  spruce,  or  sonethitic;  r-inil-T.  A  raixea  forest  has  often 
"by  en  •(;•;.   .   .    ii  crops  excrete  toxins. 

L)  '¥'..      and  3oil. 

oreet  •  jj'ccts  the  formation  of  soil  fron:  rock,  the  transpor- 
t'.  Lion  of  i-joil  ;7:at(.!riHl,  soil  biology,  goil  ^hyf*icr,  nnd  soil  chemistry. 


1,.    i'orec't    i  .nn«tion. 

a,.    Die   foreet   Adfct^  protect??   rock   ^^ninrtt    r^pid   chan^ea   in   tern- 

i;a.-:t   frop,t>,  mechanioal   «ctfe«rn   of  7?p.ter,    ice   ana    ;;ind.    By 
30   doing   it   r<-,  c:\rda   the  phyaic«"L   and  'nechnnicil   diointcgration   of   rock. 

b,.    J:ie   foreBt   keeps   t)ie   soil  moist   and   the   Ccr    dppliod   to   the 
rock,    there  i>y   a88urinf?  continual   action   in   dianolving   rock  material. 


jc.    iioot:^   of   treew   enter  cleavage   lines  or   orrck^:    in  rocks,    and 
by  h    and    oxp-.naion   PSBiBt   in    t^.e  bren>ins   of   ^ro  i.id. 


ci.    rue   forest   acids   l«»rg«  Tia  «.  B  c  3   of   orr^iic  .k  and    thereby 

adds   l;ouj.x,    to    tiie    soil,    'i'hie   effect   varies   with   the   climate   nnd   condi- 
tion  .  'ockt    a  a   uoee   the   total   effect   of   the   .t'or^.t.    New   England,  has 

nite,    Pennsylvania  haa   shale,    Kentuclcy  bae  limestone. 


2.    /jie  forest   retard  »   or  t?revent?   entirely   tho   transportation  of 
soil    by   vreter,    ice   ??na   wind.    v?ator   transportation    :.-c  corses   very  slowj 

.vciuded.    All   the   r»*d   jjnndfj  formations,    BS  in  Wyoming,    the 
•ck     .ills,    Texas   and  New  ?sexico,    are   curved   in    aharp  hills  and   ravines; 
sue".,   conformations  never  exist    in  forest 


Cutting   Uie   forest   at   oncechant-eB    it.    Forest    countries  have  nor- 
Ll^         ro   nded   topography  nnrt   nil    changes   -ire      "       .      ~:<:    '  ississippi   H. 


In   regions   like    trie    Alpp?      ^Thp-r-    r  'lily   disint  e^r^  te,    a 

tough  forc-sL    cover  often  holds   tho   ^oil    no   lon(?;   that   landslides   occur 
......  aiaiiiiie^rati  on   and    decomposition. 


y:    1)    forest    nccunulatee   and  Vuildn    up    tl-.o    isoil. 

2j   >'orenL  A££^JbA4i  ^«**Aft^fe  &&  WM&  irakes  for  permanent 
soil   conditions,  . 


128. 


3..  Forest  *=md  Soil  Physics. 

The  forent  ns  a  tall  shelter  protects  the  soil  against 
sun,  wind  and  r*.in;  against  rn.pid  changes  in  temperature,  ana 

2}  The  forest  effects  the  entrance  of  water  into  the 
soil,  water  contents,  and  percolation,  *nd  therefore  it  affects  le 
solution  of  ealts  and  the  movement  of  those  salts. 

^}  TV,-  for^ft  protects  t:  a  ~ir  in  the  forest.  It  shades 
it,  and  modofiee  i  -'nt>  r*nd  "umidity,  ana  tins 

reacts  u^on  tr.e  soil. 

forest  evapo*        I  trennpir--  l".rse  amounts  of 
wp;  reduce*  so       ture*  but  it  nlao  cools  the  M  air 

ant   '  '  d  • 

51  The  for      I   s  organic  matter  which  may  ce  worked 
ov--  into  mulch  ind  cover  to  soil,  ond  thereby  aids  in  its  protection 
inrt  evV     .-ion  nnd  in  maintaining  its  rnellownese  and  permeability. 

forr^t  furniehea  materipl  for  humus,  vfcich  aifectg 

th  ng  cnpncity  of  the  soil,  both  in  regard  to  hygroscopic 

•?l!^ry  wn  tcr. 


7>  ?orrnt  rootr^  prrrr.-epte  the  roil  nt  various  depths;  ge- 
they  till  the  noil  deeper  than  is  the  c*ee  in  ^rftculture. 


ei*    ?)'-    for^Bt   a*  0    t^ll    shelter:    t*;e   forest   air   is   shadec 
Bll   .  terially  affecting  plant  and  animal  M  th 

-.ntoriPlly  Tflodafied.   A  -wind 


- 


plsnt., 


tree, 


V    Summer   mins   do   not    ntrilcn   Die   ground,    hut   the   trees 
.refSre^  greater  portion   of   the   precipitation   comes   in   th 
/dr4in;:s  from   the  foliage     Heavy  raine   tena  to  har 
'.    „-«.*    o-r    tl  c^   ^I'.en   evpporf!  o,  oo.    .- -s  mucn  as   AU 

7"  «          -iior^e:    this   seeming  loee  a<Jdfi   to   tlin  humiflity  »*  t^.^Bt 

, Hiep/thft "tree-,   flomp.    wid   le^?en«   the   tmnanirntion,    ana   this   in 
turn   reacts   on    the    soil. 

4)    The  Profit    is   less   deep   in/  the   fore^.    -his   *tt**** 
M..1    «nd    slant  life      and  especially   the   entrance   rind  movements  of   wat 
In    tho   w?l!  S   ii  &ort«t   in   regard    to    s,rin,r  thawe.    open  lanas  have 
flood  '    frozen     -ro;.n    . 

,~f    tflBmePature   of  Oil   is  mor"   uniform,    r.no.  generally  lowei 

ir  er     in^the  forest,    th<  thout   the   forest.    Therefore  all  P'ocee 

I 


wet    sit  '.I'li;  ions  mule}),   can   readily  V;et    too   ci->.-p,    especially   in  northern 

clijTi" 

5}  The  effect  of  the  forest  is  in  proportion  to  the  den- 
sity of  the  forest,  and  the  kind  of  timber.  It  is  more  conspicuous  in 
o  more  extreme  climate.  This  may  be  illustrated  by  conditions  in  expo- 
sures on  the  sides  of  hills. 

^-  .  Entrance  of  r-Ur  Vj    '  .,   rmtfeT  contents,  and  w??ter  move- 

ment . 

<-ds   is   nv  .y   uneven,    humps   an< 

epreeeion                                 I         •         o«Hs3.       i       ;    tnnd  to  hold   water  in   r--j;is 

ItUAtion                      '                   '     .            •  .   .    ..       igr    ;  .:y.   Mountai 
;il<!    e 

-    in  V7oodrj   ie  normally  abunur,nt.    This  debris   tak 
up  water    (liv-  t   drie:.;   clown  to   about   20;-   or 

ris   pr<r  Ike   entrance   cf   v;rvtcr   to    the   soil   *nd 

.    It?   ili-  .      .  e  sir  in  the  weeds  moist   and 

cool,  aoil.    lebris   retards   the  flcv/  of   ;vater  on  the    sur 

;    thifl   i^  very   :r;Port*nt    in   regard    to    r-irifall.    A  vreeded   ditch  may 

.    Co*  pare    the   pr.ved   street   7-ith   a  grass   law; 

3)    riie  roulch,    as  a  normal   part   of    the   forest,    acts  just 
ic"brir.  irface   is   irret..   '.      ,   ir»ulch  aaterlala   :  VI  sort-   easily  an< 

of   •;.-  -!•     ,  1  ,reat   difference  between   sod 

...    A  f«ll   of   ln    in   2  hours   is   exceptional;   more   thaj 
flood.       ...     .  ,rtic/i  liuld  by   th3   foliage,    sod, 

r;  . 

is   influential   in  holui  ier.    Jn   the  7/estern   coun- 

try  of   Vunv.:  lie   cunui  tion   of   no    sod   and   little   rainf^l    effect 

. 

Lucre  -i:.o    the   actual   Orncient   ul'   vater  flow;    water  reachei 

".lies;   jflost   of    the  water  falls  on   the    steeper 

si--  lly.    C;.  .    t}io   diff<.       .,    -ffec-tf   of   cloudburats   on  prai- 

ri*;  r   part?    of    tha    country. 


Ich  atsor'n?   nn<3  hold«  reach  Tatar,    obstruct  3  inechanioally  the 

-:,    prcv^>:tc    1C  fror.;   refojiin^   the   i'round,    and 

:'"^-  -    Rl«   cifec:    uf  mulch  varies   in  wide 

is   scant  mulch   in   spruce   forests   comport    vi  th  harowoocs. 
Both,  d.c.-  :  -.-ig.  q.n_d  Tziulcih   jyv;  g^rmnnunj:   c_uridi-uioris_  in.  .th^e.  forest,    and   are 

e,      ,-ty  and    a  '  ,-]i  t  .    They  ar,:   difft-i.onc   from   Uie  farner' 
Inno;    till:.n«;   its  here   merely  a   temporary    condition. 

4i    •^EO^.g  &£.  .fc-^i^e^t    tr.ocs   U.JL1    U.fc    so  11  .The  ffiellowness 
ore  -,t    sail   is    due   to   fore^v    trcs   roots,    ilulcli   keeps 
-oou      afford    chnni^lB   fo.  .r   to    criuer  and  run   in, 


J)    Organic  matter   ir>   converted   to  hmjus   and   therefore   aj 
v  .'iclin-  of   u.         .:    .  feer-flow,    wad   th« 

teen   up  "by   the   w  t,cr   arc-   re-distriouted,    prtventing 


6}    "reefc   take  :         the   soil   for   thwir  own   use.    Ag- 

.     -  that   for  pound   of   dry  organic    substance 

r<    ..,;.  red  3C'^   °-'  -:    from   ths    ^oil.    jfcrt-jt    trees   ^et    along 


On  -?1  "beech  land  a  60  year  old  beech  stand  produces  about 
wood  per  acre  per  year,  and  over  ^OUO//  ol  leaves  ?md  small  twi~,s, 
or  about  10,000f/  of  organic  matter  all  tolci.  On  the  basis  of  300//  water 
per  pound  dry  matter,  this  would  require  16H  rain. 

On  ;fl  pine  land  half  as  much  material  is  produced,  but  even  thai 
would  require  8M  of  r^in. 

•-At or  taken  up  by  the  roots  leave  the  soil  driest  in  the  localij 
of  the  meat  roots.  S>'Rllo"  rooter?  dry  out  the  top  layers,  deep  rooters 
the  lov;or  layers.  In  forert  the  tor>  lr?.yer«?  contnin  rr.oro  v:atcr  than  the 
lot?  liyt-   ,  Boil  1  il  in  bare  land,  as  indi- 

cated by  exrcerirrents.  There  hr-.s  been  much  diecueoion  on  this  point,  and 
much  misinterpretation  of  fact:,     experiments. 


jlpr  the  ye-tr.  in  £  water  in  the  soil . 


Sr»r 

uce 

Depth 

25  ye«r 

:    120  year 

Bare   land 

6" 
12 

19. 
19.1 
18.4 
18^0 

•  3 
:         20.2 

:         21.1 

20.6; 

•20.5 

20.2 

is  ^rc-"t-:r  Ii  st  disappears 

.  ;  up  the  previous  t'Vblc  of  aiioa^ts  of  v.ntcr  in  the  onj 
the  amounts  .-v-iporMtsd  by  trees.  { -op. 112, 11?,  119,  etc  ,  . 

of 

:   differ  in  the  it'jMNratar   tail  on  from   t,ho   soil.    The 

ftstywill     I  .*o-v  on  jack   pine   land,    as   the   latter   cannot  furnish  as  much 

wa--  .aeda,    v/hich  majtti    the   ash  &  sensitive    tree.    The   ash 

c^n  bring     .      viore   or^-.nic  material,    but   needs  racr<.  r  to   do   it   with. 

r   it  :.iay  not    die,    but    it   v?ill    not  much   or 

good   wood    (thinner   rirrr-,    etc.). 

it    of    soil   -rater,    or  free   ground         ,    r. 

A  general   claim   is  rrade   that    the   forest   leaaens   tlie   su-^ount   c 
fro  r.    This   -is   ^-?nerally   conceded    woday,    but  V.r.    Roth   thinix.e 

'.otion   is    -ibsol  ;toly    .-rr-ig.    It    contradicts   actual   experience,    ^ich- 
:i   for  exvjrr/l'.?,    in   the    p^ct    ind   th».:  -/nt,    and   also    in  Wisconsin   and 

.T    country.      r.vrsjcpQ,    ':tc.    actually  do   not  have   as  much  watc 
.'ly;    th-    re.-:;OT?jil    of  forest   dried  out    th.s   l-.ind,    ^afl   tliis  fact 
contradicts    tl'o    ,:."on evilly  ncceptevi    c?.  .       ;r->3t   losssns   the   .-»mount 

of   free   ^r o  .m d  17??. t  e r . 

This   same   claim   is   contrary   to    the   conditions   found  by   Uie 
U, ''.Geological   Survey  in  prairie^  regions.    Prairie   rivcra   are  not   regula 
they  ar-^    oither   a  flood   or  ?.  drouth. 

Hydraulic    en^i^eers   are    co.::i:}^   to   believe    strongly  in    Uie   influ 
'•••5    o^    '  or^L't    in    steadying   stre-1::-1   flow. 


st  ref-ul11     "iter  novrJ;i«rit,  and  rankos  it  more  steady.  The 
condition^  of  Tnter  nv  i    ;t  here  continue  1^  undisturbed  for  rva/ty  years 
In  thia  reopect  they  differ  rndic->lly  from  -i^rioulLural  lands,  where  the 
conrtitiona  of  witer  rnove.'ie'jt  are  disturbed  coniitantly. 

Tlie  importance  of  water  regulation  is  far  greater  in  poor  land 
than  in  r.:ood  Innd. 


The  forcf-t  regulateo  the  aor;...tio;i  of  lands.  There  is  ;nore  GU2  in 
the  ^ir  of  forert  soils  than  in  the  air  cf  open  or  br.re  lands.  The 
follcvan;  table       l:)e  number  of  cubic  feet  of  c?>r-on  dioxide  in 
1000  cubic  feet  cf  air  in  soil  in  Lhe  first  $Qn  of  soil  for  spruce  woods 
of  2^t  60,  and  120  .  respectively,  and  in  bare  land: 


re  land       : 

7.0  cu.ft.  002 

2>  yr. 

spruce   : 

w»S 

; 

12.  > 

120   * 

• 

10.2 

.   co*.if..rs; 
y±.   1  /    Ctt.ft.G        p   v   iw^o   cu.ft.    air. 

cu.ft.Cv>2   per  1000   cu.ft.    air. 


The   Fiitiyun  >IA    Uae    soil   air   is   in  a   certain  pro- 

port  Lor,    to  i  .*  less  0«   itaj^am  anu  others  have  called 

atti--.-  to    1  vuwoodQ  )iave  more   fertile   land  ^&4^fclyc 

•    ir  ti(   .    ;iiore;    Uiis  aeration   is  better  under  hard- 

woods    than   un-.'  :%ruce  ,   KinuL-   of   land,    iro&ac'ly  much   of   this 

cor)  tent  ion   ia   tr  .--..  cunt   of    soil   life  depends   closely  on   the  amount 

_e.  ire  of   coil  in    tilth. 

..^.v^iiiii   soil  from  puddlin(;   r?nd  frum  pounding  by 

.  jcion  of    the  mulch   ia   not   to  <**&& 

:  -    •    •  i;">;  -y*   condi  tion«    I«*  a  ciean*cuc   forest   vvjiere   the 

.   .*    ..  jet    is    iroPai   on   ciay    wian   on   sand.    Prairie 

.  .in   tiiwh  li^.u   tlia  forest. 


£. 

ri..  Vue  -production  of  or^iiiic  Material  by  the  forest  in  usually 
oi  t-..          of  salta  *«ii.ic>i  the  forest  must  take 

fro 


^e  I     :     »oc'U  produced 


-jecji  :        >'>00#  wo  co  :  Spruce   outgrew 

.;ruce  r      65  i  pine   »nd  beech. 

; 


It  uao  often  been  buggested  that  site  be  clppsifind  by  the  amount 

II  or^nic  matter  produced  by  the  forest: 
Conifers: 

line  twigs  produce        25~3^/     or  -^-1/3  of  totfi. 


ood  H  75 

rd  woods: 


and  t^igs  over  -nore  thnn 

l(»Rr5  th«n   5' 

(to  next  page] 


132. 


Mineral  salts  are  mostly  in  the  leaves. 

From  Buesgen  we  obtain  the  following  figures:   In  IQOf  of  dry 

leaves:  , 

Conifers:   ashes  form  **^j 

Hardwoods:  ashes  form  4--7> • 

In  some  species,  as  ash  and  black  locust,  the  abhes  run  as  :iigh 

as  &£  •' -9/  ,  or  8-9#  per  100#. 

The  young  bark  is  mostly  ash. 
Ash  in  bark  of  conifers  forms        1-2; 
M    «   «    »  hardwoods  2*4/*. 

The  smallest  amount  of  ashes  is  in  the  limbs: 

Pine  0.2-0. 2V 

Hardwoods          0.3-0.4  %. 

b.&.  The  mineral  matter  taken  from  the  soil  per  yenr  by  forest  tre 
is  largely  spent  in  building  up  leaves  and  small  twigs;  only  a  small 
amount 'ifi  used  in  building  up  wood. 

In  100J  of  dry  substance: 

1)  Hardwoods:  . 

Leaves  and  twigs:   50#,  of  which  6%  or  3#  are  ashes. 
Wood  (timber)    :    50$ 9  of  which  0.4#  or  0.2#  are  aafc 

Total  ash  is  3.2#  per  lOOa 

Therefore  from  32#  of  salt:  30#  goes  to  leaves  and  twigs,  and  2g 
to  timber;  therefore  only  1/16  of  all  mineral  matter  goes  to  timber,  tt 
other  1^/16  to  the  leaves  and  twigs,  the  bulk  of  which  is  dropped  ever^ 
year. 

2)  Conifers:         (kept  4  years) 

Leaves  and  twigs:   2?#,of  which  3><  or  0*75*  £B  ash. 
Wood  :   75tf,  of  which  0.2£  or  Q.15*  *•*»** 

Total  ash  is  0.8^  per  100* 

There  are  here  only  i#  of  ashes  as  agaiufct  3^  ashes  in  hardwoodi 
therefore  conifers  can  do  better  on  sand  than  hardwoods. 

N.  forms  16^  of  dry  protopias^i  and  therefore  is  absolutely 
essential.  No  N  and  no  growth.  Gather  ^reen  leaves: 
Young  leaves  contain       4>.  N. 
Old  leaves  are  poorer:  2-0. ^A  **•   (Heavier  in  minerals). 

It  is  an  old  story  that  one  acre  needs  a  minimum  of  40-^'0#  of 
per  year.  Conifers  need  less  than  hardwoods,  supposedly  35-40$  per  yea 

The  amount  of  K  and  P2°5  increases  in  each  leaf  from  budding  to 
dropping  of  leaf.  They  are  carried  to  it  by  solution  and  am  left  by 
evaporation,  as  are  also  other  minerals,  tho  most  of  them  decrease. 

In  1000$  beech  leaves:  May    O.Jl  gnu  K 

Oct.   0.80  gnu  and  more,K. 

This  increased  the  amount  almost  double.  The  same  was  true  of 
phosphoric  acid. 

In  100#  leaf  ash  :  Ca  and  Mg  are  richest  in  fall; 

K  and  PpOt;  are  richest  in  spring. 
May     K:  31^     P20J:  21# 
July       7 
fall  3 


133. 


About  90^  of  the  ash  goes  "back  to  the  ground,  or  Ii;/l6  of  the 
salts  in  the  leaves  and  twigs.  This  is  a  large  proportion.  In  this 
respect  hardwoods  are  very  good  for  the  land.  Conifers  return  about  1%^ 

The  salts  are  given  back  to  the  ground  regularly  every  ye?r,  wit* 
the  leaf  f.-.n.  This  is  no  fe^st  and  famine  affnir. 

Much  matter  fro;  fruits  go  to  the  ground,  also,  as  with  nuts,  etc 
T  ey  frequently  are  rich  in  nitrogen  and  phosphoric  acid,  and  so  give 
the  soil  high  grade  material.  Crops  of  fruits  are  repeated  agnin  and 

in.  Begin,  s^y,  n,t  40  years.  Then  to  100  years  of  ag  ;  there  may  be 
12  crops  of  fruit  (5  year  seed  periods).  This  meaBs  that  loss  of  litter 
in  the  forest  is  robbing  the  land.  This  is  an  import nnt  extravagance. 

The  forest  protects  the  soil;  it  allows  uniform  chemical  decom- 
pos/ition  of  rocks  and  retards  the  leaching  &&&  of  salts. 

£,  The  forest  adds  organic  material,  aids  soil  life,  aids  the 
water-he^,  dim?;  capacity  of  the  soil,  aids  the  production  of  compounds, 
and  aids  chemic-  1  decomposition. 

The  forest  may  add  too  much  to  the  soil,  as  with  Ca  and  clay. 
7/hen  the  soil  lacks  lime,  or  when  the  climate  is  cold,  as  in  the  north- 
west, trees  may  fail  entirely  to  reproduce. 

£. Forest  and  Soil  Biology, 

The  most  important  factors  are  temperature  and  moisture. 

ia.  Boil  temperature  changes  less  in  the  forest  than  outside. 
Forests  have  cool  but  even  climates.  This  reduces  the  number  of  species 
and  the  number  of  individuals,  but  keeps  more  uniform  conditions  than  or 
agricultural  or  bare  land. 

b.  Koist  arid  cool  forest  air  favors  plant  and  animal  life  in 
the  upper  layer  of  the  soil.  It  obviates  the  alternate  f rests  and  hot 
sun,  etc.  which  are  met  with  on  fcare  land.  They  are  fewer  but  more  regu- 
lar. 

£.  In  humid  districts  the  soil  is  more  moist  in  the  forest; 
in  less  humid  districts  the  layer  is  less  moist,  perhaps  because  the 
trees  draw  heavily  on  it  for  water  supply.  The  forest  also  helps  on 
poorly  drained  lands,  as  on  the  verge  of  a  swamp;  it  keeps  them  from 
getting  soggy  and  enables  the  soil  to  produce  growth. 

cU  The  forest  has  a  large  body  of  fauna  and  flora  above  and 
below  the  ground.  It  is  inhabited  by  thousands  of  insects  and  fungi,  etc 
It  thus  bears  more  or  less  relation  to  the  surrounding  fauna  and  flora. 
Log  tops  are  breeding  grounds  for  many  species.  The  cleaner  a  forest  is 
kept  the  more  this  condition  disappears. 

M)  Kind  and  Condition  of  Forest  in  relation  to  Soil. 
JL.  Individual  tree  of  scattered  stand. 

a,.  The  seedling  is  of  little  consequence  to  the  soil.  Kinds 
differ  in  importance.  One  seedling  is  not  very  essential  in  its  effect. 
A  2- year  oak  seedling  has  more  effect  on  the  soil  than  a  2- year  spruce. 
An  oak  seedling  has  already  a  big  root  system,  and  produces  a  tilling 
effect,  besides  the  leaves  it  drops  for  mulch. 

b..  Young  tree  J-20  feet  high;   There  is  considerable  tillage 
by  the  roots.  Little  mulch  is  supplied.  The  crown  is  being  shaped  during 


this  period.  Species  fliffer  materially.  A  5f  Scotch  pine  makes  a  cover, 
tills  the  ground  and  Tnakes  mulch.  The  ground  gets  a  little  shade. 

£.  Larger  and  older  trees  continue  the  s«me  notion.  The  indi- 
vidual tree  does  not  influence  the  ground  outside  of  its  own  reach. 

2.  Stand  of  Trees. 

a.  Stand  of  seedlings:  varies  with  the  density  of  the  seedlings. 
\Vhen  seedlings  are  planted  4f  apart  they  do  not  take  up  much  room,  pro- 
"b^bly  not  over  Q.l/t  of  the  total  area.  Seedlings  do  not  help  the  soil 
except  in  a  dense  stand.  In  dense  stocking,  the  sfcand  shades  the  soil, 
the  leaves  make  mulch,  the  roots  till  the  soil,  and  there  is  some  slight 
protection  from  snow.  A  dozen  seedlings  per  square  foot  can  produce  these 
effects;  then  they  begin  to  help  the  soil. 

b.  Stand  of  young  trees  3-3.0  feet  tall:  have  a  large  amount  of 
growth;  much  organic  stuff  ia  produced  each  year.  Consider  the  proportion 
of  leaves  and  twigs  to  the  total  growth  in  the  young  and  the  old  tree: 
does  the  yo  mg  stand  do  more  for  the  land  than  the  old  stand? 

The  young  stand  forms  a  densr  cover  close  to  the  ground,  and  shel- 
ter? it  from  rnin,  wind,  sun,  snow,  and  reduces  the  waste  of  water. 

The  care  of  the  soil  by  the  young  stand  is  good.  In  this  respect 
compare  scotch  pine  and  spruce,  and  these  with  locust,  ash  and  elm  (not 
so  good  protection,  "jatig  sod  grows).  At  this  age  there  is  no  sod  under  the 
Scotch  pine,  as  may  be  witnessed  at  the  Saginaw  Forestry  Farm  west  of 
Ann  Arbor. 

There  is  an  immense  difference  between  a  stand  of  conifers  and  of 
hard-'ooas.  A  leaf  cover  keeps  the  ground  warmer,  the  snow  melts  faster, 
and  flows  faster  in  the  spring;  it  warms  the  soil  quicker;  it  freezes  in 
winter.  Grasses  are  encouraged  by  the  warming  and  moisture  before  the 
hardwoods  leaf  out.  This  affects  soil  life,  ^onifer^  have  a  comparatively 
soil. 


The  intolerance  of  the  pine  is  not  so  marked  at  this  early  age  as 
it  is  lat<  r.  Hie  same  is  tnue  of  oak,  which  may  have  thickets  as  thick 
as  beech,  up  to  this  age.  Lodg  pole  and  Jack  pine  also,  and  tamarack,  may 
have  as  many  as  a  dozen  trees  per  square  yard. 

£.  Stand  of  trees  10-30  f  high:   Growth  in  volume  and  other 
growth  is  greater  than  in  stand  3~!0f  high.  The  stand  is  now  approaching 
its  maximum  growth.  On  account  of  cleaning  this  stand  put-  the  largest 
amount  of  litter  on  the  ground.  Decay  ordinarily  is  rapid.  Along  with 
organic  matter  comes  an  increase  in  insects  and  fungi.  Suppressed  trees 
are  attacked  by  organic  life.  (Forest  Sanitation:  getting  rid  of  these 
organisms),  tfince  the  crown  cover  is  complete  we  have  good  protection 

i»u-t  sun,  wind,  etc.,  but  not  as  good  as  in  the  younger  stage.  At  this 
sta,:  we  get  the  most  intensive  till^o  of  the  soil.  At  this  stage  we  get 
the  first  danger  of  duff,  organic  matter  which  falls  on  the  ground  but 
does  not  rot,  as  the  needles  of  the  donifers,  etc. 


135. 


cU  Pole  sta^e,  30-50*  high:  At  the  end  of  this  staje  the  crowns 
begin  to  open  up.  In  intolerant  species  the  stand  itself  opens  up.  The 
crown  is  even  higher  than  in  the  preceding  stn^e.  The  maximum  growth  per 
acre  of  the  stand  has  "been  reached  and  pa;  sed  in  this  stage.  Litter  and 
leaves  are  not  so  -bundn.nt.  Roots  are  larger  and/  interfere. 

Results  of  this  stage: 

1)  Less  perfect  use  of  soil. 

2)  Greater  air  movement,  therefore  more  drying  out  of  soil. 

3)  Wore  rain  .riving  thru  cover,  which  tends  .to  harden  soil. 
4}  Diffused  light  mostly  at  ground. 

5)  Temperature  effect  is  more  pronounced;  i.e.,  lower  and 
more  uniform  than  outside. 

Maximum  growth,  mulch  and  cleaning,  root  development  and  fertilit 
drain  on  land  and  loss  of  isHtsr  and  redistribution  of  salts. 


£.  Tree  stage  proper,  60-100  years  and  over. 

The  intolerant  stand  opens  up  decidedly.  3^~50^  of  the  la 
is  opened  up  to  the  rain,  sun  and  wind.  The  crown  opens  up  more  decidedl 
Th/e  trees  are  teller;  the  canopy  is  higher,  and  gets  the  effects  that 
go  along  with  it.  Growth  in  height  and  volume  per  acre  haa  fallen  off. 
Weeds  are  apt  to  core  i  ;,  etc. 

ffect  on  soil  is: 
1)  Hardened. 


Dried  out. 
Less  mulch 
Less  life  (bacteria,  fungi) 


5)  Less  tilth  by  roots 

6)  Only  partial  use  of  soil,  less  demand  on  soil 

7)  On  account  of  decrease  in  growth,  less  demand  for  salts  and 
WR  t  er . 

hese  effects  are  more  pronounced  in  open  stands.  Old  stands  are 
less  able  to  take  care  of  the  lands  than  younger  ones. 

Ji.  Special  Cases  of  Forests. 

When  forest  trees  are  unable  to  compete  with  and  suppress  fore 
growth,  weeds,  grass,  bushes,  etc.,  come  in.  The  soil  is  affected  more 
by  the  undergrowth  than  by  the  trees  themselves. 

;a.  Grass  and  weed  cover  on  good  soil,  especially  in  cases  of 
reforestation  of  farm  lands,  yellow  pine  areas,  in  parks  of  the  Rocky 
? ountains.  The  effect  of  the  grass  6f  to  form  a  sod  which  consists  of  a 
dense  mass  of  roots  limited  to  the  upper  6  inches.  This  hardens  and  drie 
out  the  upper  layers. 

On  good  land  grass  does  not  exhaust  plant  foods,  but  it  does  draw 
upon  the  water.  In  dry  and  cold  situations  this  effect  may  become  very 
gr  t.  The  chief  harm  is  that  it  checks  reproduction. 


^.  &OBS  cover.  There  are  two  groups: 

1)  Ordinary  moss. 

2)  Sphafflium  moss . 


Ordinary  moss  is  not  injurious;  it  prevents  hardening  of  the  soil 
from  rain  impact  and  keeps  the  soil  cool.  In  a  cold  climate,  however, 
keeping  the  soil  cocl  may  check  the  bacteria,  thus  leading  to  a  duff  for 
mation. 


Sphagnum  mosses  take  up  moisture  easily  but  they  hold  it.  They 
do  not  need  mineral  &&1AA  soil  and  dislike  potash  and  lime.  They  do  need 
Iii3.it,  however;  since  they  do  not  need  K  and  Ca  they  are  found  on  poor 
Innds.  In  cold  arid  humid  climates  they  go  into  the  n'oods  and  turn  the 
forest  into  marshes  and  moss-bogs.  Thousands  upon  thousands  of  sjjuare 
miles  of  such  areas  may  be  found,  conspicuous  among  «!iieh  ar;;  the  muskeg 
of  Canada,  in  the  spruce. 

£.  Small  bushy,  woody  plants,  etc. 

Such  are  huckleberry,  heather,  bramble,  etc.  Huckleberrie 
dislike  rich  soil;  they  tend  to  form  dense  mats  on  the  soil,  and  form 
sour  humus.  Their  effect  is  to: 

1)  Hacden  sand 

2)  Destroy  f locculation,  thus  reducing  the  pore  space,  and 
therefore  the  a  r  tion. 

Heather  is  worse  than  huckleberry. 

The  tota.1  effect,  however,  is  not  injurious  to  the  soil,  as  con- 
sideration must  be  given  to  the  protection  given  against  r°in,  holding 
snow,  and  forming  some  littor. 

<1.  Chaparral. 

In  California,  Washington,  etc.  See  Forest  Service  Bul- 
letin 85. 

This  condition  of  chaparral  occurs  on  good  soils  in  arid  re- 
gions. It  consists  of  a  variety  of  species  of  trees.  In  San  Gabriel 
co  nty  they  are  permanent.  They  resist  frost.  In  the  I£t.  Shasta  region 
they  come  in  on  old  burns. 

The  form  of  chaparral  is  much  like  a  forest  cover.  The  growth  is 
like  th.nt  of  forest  trees  growing  near  the  timber  line.  Such  a  cover 
keeps  the  soil  in  good  condition.  It  is  a  better  preventative  of  erosior 
than  the  forest.  This  cover  resists  forest  growth  more  in  arid  regions. 
They  are,  intolerant  and  cannot  stand  shade. 

4.  Cases  of  very  Typical  forest  in  regard  Soil. 

This  will  be  a  comparison  of  different  forms  of  forest,  to 
some  extent, 

1)  Pine  forest  on  sandy  land  in  both  north  and  south. 

a..  Case  of  young  growth  3f  high:  Growth  rapid,  stand  dense, 
good  production  of  mulch,  roots  get  down;  effect  good,  soil  well  tilled. 

b.  Sapling  stand:  Maximum  growth.  The  stand  opens  up  a 

little;  the  crown  rises.  The  soil  is  still  helped,  but  not  as  much  as  ir 
the  former  stage,  so  far  as  regards  cleaning  and  mulch. 

c.  Pole  stage;  About  the  same  as  given  before  (under  2d, 
page  135). 

d..  Tree  stage:  Same  as  before  (2e,page  135 )• 

£.  On  poor  sites;  poor,  cold,  etc. 

On  such  lands  we  have  to  get  such  stands  as  lodgepolfc/ 
pine,  Jack  pine,  etc.  These  sites  may  stagnate.  The  trees  are  stunted. 
Such  a  stand  may  be  old  and  yet  very  small.  The  crowns  are  poor,  deform- 
ed; the  mulch  on  the  soil  is  almost  lacking;  there  is  poor  soil  life, 
much  leaching,  mosses  and  lichens,  etc.,  and  no  growth.  Often  the  cli- 
mate is  cold,  preventing  small  and  brush  growth.  The  soil  hardens  and 


137 


leaches.  Often  there  is  no  ground  cover  except  lichens  and  scrub  huckle- 
berry. The  forest  and  the  soil-cannot  help  each  other  until  burned  over 
or  mntil  it  dies.  Then  Jack  pine  comes  and  rejuvenates  it. 

(quite  common  in  reforestation) 

f.  From  the  nbove  conditions, the  roots  often  get  diseased  and  die 
out,  killing  the  forest.  Trees  die  and  thin  out;  the  root  disease  does 
not  show  much  nTjo'tr-e  the  ground.  Pine  and  spruce  in  Switzerland  are  good 
examples.  There  they  improved  spruce  temporarily  by  manual  tiltfc,  with 
hoes' and  mattocks.  The  condition  was  probably  due  to  insufficient  aer-tic 
fro1--   ;;ricultural  lam,  . 

K.  Cared-for  stand-s  of  pine.  These  are  pure  and  thrifty,  tho 
fewer  in  number;  the  total  growth  is  the  s^me  as  in  the  dense  wild  stand, 
but 'abundant  thinnings  are  made,  so  there  is  less  mulch  from  leaves, 
twirB.  bark, etc.  Is  the  forest  soil  here  as  well  benefited  as  the  uncaret 
for  stand  with  more  mulch?  Consider  this  point;  &ayr  said  not:  that  wild 
woods  without  thinning  by  man  is  better  in  soil;  when  man  thins  it  out 
the  soil  decreas  s  and  no  longer  improves  and  holds  the  land.  .Duff  may 
corne.  This  is  an  interesting   question. 

h.  Lack  of  assistance  tfl  soil  in  these  pineries  has  led  to  the 
practice  of  underplanting  pine  with  beech.  This  adds  a  new  young  stand 
with  more  and  better  mulch  arid  better  tillage  and  helps  the  soil. 

i.  The  clear-cutting  and  planting  method  is  now  common.  The  so 
is  opened  up  and  exposed  to  sun,  wind  and  rain.  The  humus  burns  out.  The 
soil  heats,  dries,  freezes,  settles,  hardens  and  leaches.  Soil  life  is 
decre     co  a  small  %  of  the  normal,  therefore  fertility  is  seriously 
reruced.  #he  soil  being  a  poor  sand  y light),  the  changes  are  all  the  mor 
disastrous.  The  -ind  is  the  rcost  import -nt  factor.  It  is  better  to  cut 
small  ar     t  a  time,  ttulch  blows  in  too.  A  larger  area  has  worse  con* 
ditions  of  soil  than  a  small  area  when  cut  cl>  an. 

i.  Cle-tr-cutting;   the  young  plantation  takes  5  years  to  make 
a  cover,  and  several  years  mor  to  being  the  soil  back  to  normal.  This  is 
a  loss  of  growth  to  trees  themselves.  This  loss  of  fertility  is  felt  for 
years  afterwards.  The  loss  from  badly  3bfe&3fcift&  leaching  sands  is  never 
regained, 

2)  Spruce  Forest. 

a.  Young  stand  3'  and  over:   is  dense;  the  cover  is  perfect. 
The  shallow  roots  till  the  soil  near  the  surface,  the  growth  is  rapid, 
there  is  moderate  mulch.  The  mulch  of  the  leaves  is  inferior,  packs 
closely,  and  resists  dec-iy. 

b.  gapling  and  pole  stand:  there  is  a  very  large  growth  per 
acre  per  year.  The  debris  and  mulch  are  abundant,  the  root  system  con- 
tinues shallow,  and  uses  the  top  soil;  it  even  works  in  duff  or  mule* 
itself.  Ther  is  good  cover,  the  mulch  is  faiily  abundant,  but  of  inf 
riot  quality;  the  shallow  tillage  dries  and  exhausts  the  top  soil. 

is  poor  aeration  and  poor  soil  life;  therefore  the  soUlsettles,  tends  to 
leach,  and  becomes  deficient  in  salts,  especially  nitrogen. 

c.  Pole  or  tree  ^tagc:   spruce  continues  without  material 
change;  it~keeps  a  very  dense  cover,  preventing  all  kinds  of  herbace6us 
growth  and  reproduction  (grass,  etc.). 


138. 


d.  Generally  spruce  requires  special  climatic  sites,  does  not 
help  the  soil,  r\nd  tends  to  convert  the  land  to  a  form  supporting  only 
spruce  (toxins).  On  large  acres  of  beech  land,  the  introduction  of  sprue 
drove  the  beech  out.  This  was  probably  due  to  a  change  in  the  physical 
condition  of  the  soil.  Lands  sometimes  get  "tired"  of  spruce,  and  then 
it  is  difficult  to  grov  other  species  there.  Haraam  applies  this  to  all 
s  ecies,  but  this  is  a  doubtful  policy,  for  beech  and  certain  species 
will  put  the  soil  in  a  condition  good  for  anything.  But  large  arer?s  are 
abused  by  certain  species;  spruce,  heather  in  Europe,  and  moss  s,  which 
deaden  the  soil,  hardens  it  and  kills  bacteria. So  Raiaam  is  partially 
correct.   Get  the  hardwoods  back  on  the  land;  they  will  help  the  soil 
even  if  the  venture  is  not  financially  prof it--;^le  for  direct  crops.  Hard 
wood  foresters  believe  in  rotation;  this  can  be  done  but  is  difficult. 
Spruce  in  southern  &erraany  gro  /s  £10.00  per  acre,  which  is  $6.00  net  ove 
all  expens  s;  few  foresters  will  give  up  such  an  income  for  beech  on  a 
long-time  rotation,  for  beech  does  not  pay  as  well  as  that. 

£)  Beech  Forest.  !£ixed  hardwoods. 

a.  Young  growth;   The  roots  are  dense,  deep  and  intensive; 
there  is  much  growth  per  acre,  &&&&  a  large  proportion  of  the  growth  is 
of  the  best  mulch;  the  stand  is  deciduous,  and  the  sun  gets  to  the  groun 
in  the  fall  and  spring;  consequently  there  is  always  some  spring  herba- 
cious  vegetation.  The  winds  affect  the  ground  part  of  the  year.  There  is 
better  ventilation  of  the  woods,  toetter  mulch  nnd  better  aerntion  of  soi 

The  soil  is  benefited  by  excellent  tillage,  there  is  much  mulch  o 
high  quality,  good  aeration,  abundant  soil  life  making  for  fine  soil,  an 
great  moisture  capacity. 

b.  The  saia£  conditions  continue  to  mature  timber.  The  time  of 
maximum  growth  in  b-  ech  comes  late.  Mulch  material  always  forms  more  the 
half  tfean  half  the  growth.  The  till^e  os  good,  there  is  good  soil  life. 
A  large  proportion  of  the  mold  and  top-soil  is  made  of  the  excrements  of 
animals. 

£,  On  poor  land,  especially  sand  with  little  lime  and  much 
mulch,  beech  sometimes  grows  well  and  yet  is  unable  to  prevent  turf  fom 
ing  and  growing  under  the  stand,  this  is  rare  even  in  Europe.  A  longer 
season  and  higher  temperature  obviates  this  difficulty. 

4)  Oak. 

Oak  is3imilar  in  its  behaviour  *o  beech. 

a.  Young  stand:  dense  growth,  planty  of  mulch,  deep  roots, 
starts  late  in  the  spring. 

b.  Pole  stand:  the  stand  and  the  crown  open  up,  so  vegetation 
comes  in;  The  soil  dries  and  hardens  for  lack  of  protection. 

£.  From  now  on  the  oak  is  unable  to  care  for  the  soil.  There- 
fore underplanting  is  used.  Kature  normally  does  the  same  thing  herself, 

d.  On  poor  sands  in  moderate  climates  oak  can  do  more  for  the 
soil  than  o"ther  hardwoods,  because  of  its  deep  rooting. 

5)  Mixed  forest  and  all-aged  forest  in  regard  to  soil. 

a.  A  mixed  forest  of  several  species  makes  various  demands  on 
the  soil,  "soil  quality  and  soil  moisture;  it  differs  in  the  size  of  the 


139. 


trees,  in  density,  and  therefore  in  tillage  and  in  the  mulch  produced. 
It  stinulates  soil  life,  owing  to  the  variety  of  mulch.  Where  the  mixture 
is  part  deciduous  there  is  the  advantage  of  greater  soil  formation,  ae- 
ration, and  soil  moisture,  and  herbaceous  plants  come  in  and  assist  in 
working  up  the  humus,  therefore  the  action  is  beneficial.  This  is  valu- 
able in  spruce  woods,  as  it  affords  a  means  of  cleaning  out  the  debris. 

TD.  In  an  all-aged  stand,  even  if  pure,  there  is  a  variety  of 
tree  sizes,  from  brush  to  timber;  therefore  there  is  a  variety  of  cover, 
shape,  protection  from  wind  and  rain,  a  difference  in  tillage  and  use  of 
soil,  and  a  difference  in  mulch  production.  Unf  ourtunately,  lean  sands 
are  driven  to  pine;  others  vfill  not  cone.  Pines  do  not  do  well  as  un- 
even-aged stands.  An  extreme  case  of  this  is  the  Jack  pine  in  the  north. 
It  will  not  grow  in  uneven-a^e<l  stands;  it  will  come  in  on  burns,  but  not 
under  an  old  st°nd.  It  gives  the  least  amount  of  help  to  the  forester. 
This  is  also  true  of  hard  pinos,  It  is  largely  a  matter  of  tolerance. 

K)  Physiography  of  Soil. 

i.  Depth  of  soil  depends  on  its  origin  and  manner  of  building  up. 

a,.  Y'ater  and  wind  transportation  give  large  areas  of  uniform 
deep  soils,  sands,  and  silts. 

b,.  Water  transportation  gave  and  gives  smaller  areas  of  such 
uniform  soTls  in  valleys,  etc. 

di.  Glacial  drift  gave  large  areas  of  unusually  deep  soil 
accumulations,  very  variable  in  kind  and  structure  of  material, 

ei.  Soils  in  place  usually  vary  in  wide  limits,  even  on  small 
areas,  in  keeping  vdth  the  variation  of  the  rock  material  itself. 

e_.  Shallow  soils  are  more  variable  than  deep  soils;  this  vari- 
ation is  felt  more  by  plants.  This  is  also  true  of  hardpan. 

j2.  Topography  affects  soils. 

ji.  Steep  grounds  tend  to  wash  off  bodily.  Agriculture  ceases 
at  3°/£  slopes,  cultivated  forest  at  6o/»  .  Beyond  this  point  woods  are 
"protected  forests*1,  rocks  holding  the  sand,  etc. 

b..  All  slopes  wash  (this  10  axiomatic),  and  the  best  soil 

tends  to  go  down  to  the  bottom. 

£.  Soil  on  slopes  is  normally  over-drained/  water  moves  faster 
and  soils  Teach  more  than  on  the  l 


<1.  Slope  affects  soil  temperature.  Cold  and  warm  sites  on  east 
and  west  slopes.  Following  is  the  order  of  the  different  exposures  in 
regard  to  warmth  and  coldness,  beginning  with  the  warmest  and  ending  witli 
the  coldest;  SW,  S,  SS,  W,  a,  NBf  NW,  H. 

The  effect  of  the  direct  sun  in  latitude  48°  K.  is  practically 
nil  in  January,  when  the  angle  of  slope  is  55°  <>r  more,  for  north  slopes. 
The  soil  warms  up  in  summer: 

June  :  Jan.   ::  8  :  7 

Sept.  :  Jan.   ::  3  :  1   on  the  level. 

e,.  Slope,  by  affecting  temperature,  affects  soil  evaporation, 


140. 


and  transpiration  from  plant »,  nnd  therefore  affects  the  moisture 
contents  and  condition  of  soil.  A  warmer  slope  dries  more  and  there- 
fore grows  wanner.  This  may  often  reach  an  aggravated  condition. 

jf.  Topography  affects  transportation  of  soil.  It  is  the 
gre^ t  influence. 

£.  Topography  determines  drainage  and  water  distributiona  and 
levels,  the  abundance  of  moisture,  and  therefore  the  moisture  contents. 
Topography  locates  swamps,  and  it  may  fill  them  up  bodily  with  soil 
material,  also  lakes,  and  peat  bogs, 

3..  Climate  ( temperRture.moisture, wind)  affects  soil. 

ii.  Arid  soils  are  rich  in  salts  regardless  of  temperature. 

To.  Humid  soils  are  constantly  leached  and  must  rebuild.  In 
deep  sands  rebuilding  is  a  precarious  process:  there  is  little  to  build 
from,  and  the  soil  must  stay  poor,  often  too  poor  for  any  vegetation, 

£.  Low  temperature  and  low  (great?)  soil  moisture  aggravate 
the  c?se  and  give  cold  sour  dead  soils. 

cl.  Wind  affects  soils  in  arid  countries  and  with  very  poor 
soils  it  transports  and  drifts  the  soil.  In  mountains  with&i&fc  S#  expo- 
sures the  wind  aids  drying,  especially  in  the  upper  soil  layers  and 
therefore  it  affects  most  the  reproduction  of  growth.  Keating  aggravate 
wind  circulation, 

e,.  Snow  affects  soil  temperature  in  winter  and  spring,  pre- 
v-ints  frost  and  affects  percolation  and  saturation  of  the  soil,  and  the: 
fore  Mffectn  the  underground  runoff. 

£.  otony  material  left  by  water  &&a&  protects  the  soil  from 
erosion,  and  evaporation,  and  tends  to  raise  the  soil  temperature.  In 
Pennsylvania  and  the  Appalachians  it  tends  to  warm  the  soils. 

0)  Biotic  Factors  of  Site. 

Here  will  be  discussed  the  effects  of  plants  and  animals. 

]L.  Plants  and  animals  may  help,  hinder,  and  sometimes  prevent 
forest  growth. 

a,.  Plants  and  animals  bearing  some  relation  to  the  fertility 
of  the  soiT  have  been  discussed  before,  and  so  here  we  will  discuss 
only  those?  -.-hich  are  not  connected  with  the  soil  but  which  affect 
trees  and  their  development  directly, 

la.  livery  forest  tree  100  years  old  has  probably  been  attacked 
somewhere  by  insecis  and  fuftgi  for  more  than  75  years. 

£.  ivery  forest  tree  100  years  old  has  shed  leaves,  baric,  roo 
and  has  beeri  mutilated  by  the  wind,  and  therefore  portions  have  been 
broken  away  and  destroyed, 

ci.  .iSvery  kind  of  forest  tree  is  suoject  to  attacks  of  many 
fungi  and  insects,  and  most  trees  are  eaten  in  parts  by  animals. 

£.  More  than  ?00  species  of  insects  attacks  the  oaks  in  the 
United  8t*T*s«  They  destroyed  completely  the  tamarack,  and  the  pine  in 


141. 


parts  of  the  west  over  large  are*s.  The  "beetle  hinders  the  black  locust 
all  thru  the  eastern  United  States.  The  gypsy  moth  is  now  endangering 
all  the  spruce  all  over  the  United  States.  The  bark  disease  of  the 
chestnut  threatens  to  annihilate  it.   The  fungus  Pisisa  stopped  the  ex- 
tension of  -'uro^ean  larch  in  Germany  and  France.  The  bamboo  exterminates 
whole  forento  in  part?  of  the  tropics.  The  Sphagnum  moss  has  and  is  now 
destroying  million*  of  acres  of  forest. 

f .  This  matter  is  wore  serious  on  poor  soil  and  in  cold  cli- 
mates because  here  we  have  little  choice  of  species.  Those  same  condi- 
tions' are  found  in  hot  countries:  moss  in  the  north,  chaparral  in  Cali- 
fornia, bamboo  and  cnnes  in  the  tropics. 

g.  En  general  the  forest  is  not  driven  out  permanently  by 
other  biotic  factors.  The  forest  is  itself  a  tremendous  biotic  factor. 
But  it  may  be  temporarily  driven  o.it,  except  in  the  cases  of  Sphagnum 
and  chaparral,  which  are  »on  or  less  permanent.  The  extent  of  the  effect 
is  therefore  not  emtim-vtaole,  in  general.  Buffalo  and  other  game  animals 
furnishc  food,  multiplied  and  became  potent  biotic  factor  :,  together 
with  grazing  animals, 'as  they  prob-bly  checked  forest  growth  and  encour- 
aged grasses.  The  fringe  forest  was  restricted. 

Dually  the  effect  is  the  loss  of  one  or  tv;o  species  and  a  tem- 
porary change  in  composition. 

Biotic  factor-  are  universally  and  always  on  hand;  they  every- 
where tend  to  interfere  Kith  growth,  with  development  in  size  and  form, 
and  with  reproduction.  They  are  as  import-nt  to  the  woods  as  soil. 

2.  Fungi  and  larger  plants  (herbaceous). 

>?/  fungi  and  bacteria  actually  help  trees;  most  of  them  injure 
trees.  /-11  wood-destroying  fungi  are  a  necessary  scavenger  feature  in  th< 
economy  of  the  forest.  It  is  necessary  for  Nature  to  employ  such  agents. 

^.  Insects  and  larvae  arc  generally  injurious,  and  next  to  man 
.T.  the  great  enemy  of  the  forest.  They  are,  however,  useful  as  side 
factor^  in  regard  to  cross-f ertilization,  and  they  are  an  especially  tre 
mendous  factor  in  fighting  each  other.  They  may  be  adapted,  therefore,  ai 
biotic  factors  in  combating  injurious  insects. 

4.  Rodents  and  browsing  animals  are  generally  injurious,  but  of- 
ten are~useful  bictic  factors.  Beechnuts  and  other  seeds  are  frequently 
planted  by  these  animals,  &&&£&&  including  squirrels.  Larger  animals 
act  as  a  check  on  insect  ravages. 

£.  Man  is  an  important  regulator  and  the  worst  destroyer  of  the 
forent.  He  has  removed  the  forest  over  enormous  areas,  he  has  destroyed 
it  by  fire,  he  has  used  its  wood,  and  introduced  new  species. 

Pf  Classify,  Judge,  and  Use  the  Site. 

A  good  reference  is  Hilgard,  page  48?  and  following.  Copy  the 
t-'ble  from  page  497  in  that  book. 

1..  Usually  we  classify  sites  in  five  classes.  Ordinarily  three 
claf.  ses"""are  sufficient. 

a.  The  classif ication  of  site  by  volume  of  useful  material  is 
scientific~and  probably  will  be  the  final  form  everywhere.  It  is  dif 
cult  to  apply  in  the  wild-  oods  because  stands  growing  under  reasonably 


142. 


average  conditions  are   (rt/X)  uncommon.  Conditions  are  better  in  Europe. 
Different  nations  hove  different  methods,  but  they  all  agree  on  site 
if  icption. 


b.  The  classification  of  site  by  size  of  the  individual  tree 
(stem  analysis)  is  easier  to  apply  ?.nd  simpler  for  the  vdld-v/oods  condi- 
tions. 

£.  The  study  of  composition,  stand,  and  herbacious  flora  && 
and  shrubs  is  helpful.  If  a  species  will  or  will  nor  quit,  it  indicates 
sour  soil,  or  some  such  clew.  Local  studies  are  necepg^ry,  but  may  not 
be  satisfactory  or  convincing,  especially  if  curried  on  too  large  a  sca3£> 
or  not  exact  or  definite  enough.  Such  are  studies  of  topography,  site, 
etc.,  which  are  carried  an  by  some  farmers.  The  presence  of  Jack  pine 
shows  poor  land. 

d.  The  study  of  the  site  factors  themselves  is  laborious,  and 
should  include  an  analysis  of  soils,  etc.  Of  the  site  classifications  in 
'urope,  not  I  in  1000  was  determined  by  the  studjr  of  the  site  itself. 
This  is  scientific  study,  arid  ia  often  good  for  preliminary  work, 

je.  The  study,  classification  and  mapping  of  sites  is  always  one 
of  the  important  tasks  of  the  forester  in  the  field.  Sites,  especially  in 
regard  to  soil,  topography  and  exposure,  vary  in  wide  limits  on  both 
small  and  large  aro-  .   intakes  in  European  >ork  occur  because  they  gen- 
erally do  not  take  these  v-v.riaoions  into  consideration/. 

In  the  Jnitod  States  we  do  not  plant  &&  big  areas  with  one  species 
as  lias  been  done  in  Europe,  but  we  have  tended  to  other  mistakes  of  our 
own. 

2.  Variations  in  site.    The  forester  and  the  site. 

a.  These  variati*  as,  as  mentioned  above,  results  in  different 
growth  ant  different  kinds  of  timber,  volume,  quality,  size,  and  rate  of 
growth,  which  affects  the  money  question.  Here  was  an  important  case  in 

...  :   arope  raised  oak  on  different  classes  of  lands;  it  was  good  on 
sites  I  and  II,  but  it  was  not  profitable  even  on  II  at  3^.  Sites  III,  IV 
and  V  wer>:  not  profitable. 

b.  These  variations  demand  different  species  and  proper  choice 
of  specie. 

£.  These  variations  demand  different  treatment  for  different 

kinds  of  atfinus,  as  selection,  etc. 


%.  Site  and  the  Forester. 

make  site:  we  irrigate,  till,  manure,  give  it  organic  and 
inorgnnic  matter,  and  even  change  the  topography. 

The  forester  affects  site  only  thru  the  forest  cover  itself.  His 
means  are; 

1)  A  choice  of  species.  Avoid  poor  trees  of  poor  cover;  expos- 
ed or  poor  lands,  etc. 

2)  Keep  the  cover  in  the  best  shpe  possible  to  keep  the  soil 
alive  --nd  •  ctive,  and  do  not  waste  the  soil  moisture. 

3)  Avoia  even  temporary  breaks  in  soil  protection  unless  the 
climate  and  soil  are  amply  able  to  stand  it. 


Forestry  2b.  143. 


Chapter  IV. 


VIC  3   OF   THK    3TANJ3. 

:i.  The  Tree. 

The  tree  starts  as  a  sssdling  and  parses  thru  several  stages, 
sapling,  pole,  standard,  veteran.   There  is  no  special  stimulus  for  heigh 
hrovrth;  there  is  ^ood  diameter  growth,  the  stem  is  thick  at  the  butt, 
the  tree  is  windfirm;  the  final  form  is  typical  of  the  species/. 

ith  plenty  of  food  the  volume  growth  i»  fast  and  is  kept  up  to 
old  o£e,  with  no  maximum  for  ordinary  ages.  The  fruiti-  are  ample  and  the 
reproauc  tion  is  vigorous. 

The  tree  in  the  open  depends  on  itself,  as  it  gets  no  help  from 
the  outside  in  the  beginning  or  in  its  development. 

g.  The  Stand  of  Trees. 
General  development: 

a,.  At  first  there  is  a  dense  stand  of  natural  reproduction, 
with  several  trees  per  square  yard. 

1).  A  struggle  for  soil  moisture  begins  early,  followed  by 

a  stru^l'.  f-or  li;jht  ?:nd  crown  space. 

jc.  At  a  height  of  5  feet  there  are  about  10  trees  per  square 
ya  d,  and  adl  trees  suffer  from  the  crowding.  tfo  tree  has  the  space,  the 
soil  or  the  li>;ut  which  it  wants  and  can  make  use  of. 

cU  'Jtronc  trees  outgrow  the  weaker  trees,  while  both  suffer 

and  ar   retarded  in  growth  nnd  development  .  They  cannot  spread  their 

root.c;  or  the-ir  tops  according  to  their  nature,  because  they  are  BO 
crovde  . 

£.  The  results  in  the  sapling  age  are:   a  thin  weak  stand,  a 
contracted  sparse  crown,  less  food  arid  therefore  less  root  growth;  a 
weaker  tree,  less  v;indfirm  and.  resistant  to  snow,  less  vigorous  in  its 
ovn  anatomy  and  leas  resistant  to  fungi  and  even  to  insects, 

For  this  stage  of  the  tree  Sanitation  of  the  forest  is  especially 
beneficial. 

£.  The  feeding  is  small  and  insufficient  for  growth,  therefore 
thero  is  lesn  and  slower  growth  per  tree.  '%en  the  limit  for  the  twig 
is  re  •  died  it  dies,  /lien  the  limit  for  the  tree  is  reached  it  dies,  from 
starvation. 

g.  Thus  a  separation  takes  place  in  the  stand,  some  trees 
dropping  out  and  dying:  the  strong  portion  of  the  stand  continues,  faste; 
at  first  and  gradually  getting  slower  in  its  growth  with  age  until  it 
ceases  to  grow  any  raore  at  about  100  years;  in  10,1!),  or  20  years  more 
they  begin  to  die  out  again. 

This  results  in  the  production  of  a  Principal  and  a  -Secondary 
stand:  the  principal  stand  is  composed  of  healthy  arid  actively  growing 


144. 


trees;  the  secondary  stand  is  formed  of  trees  which  began  to  lose  in  the 
race,  were  dropping  behind  in  ^ro^tli  and  general  progress,  and  were 
to  be  culled  oat. 

h.  The  number  of  trees  per  acre  in  the  stand  necessarily 
decreases  as  the  stand  grows  older.  The  rate  varies  with  species  and  witl 
site.  The  following  tnble  gives  the  number  of  trees  per  acre  of  spruce 
on  the  first  four  sites,  and  of  pine,  beech  and  oak,  on  site  I,  at  dif- 
ferent ages,  assuming  that  5^00  trees  per  acre  were  planted  of  each 
species: 


Spruce 

Pine 

Beech 

Oak 

Age 

Site  Ii 

I  Site  11 

Site  111 

Site  IV 

Site  I 

3ite  1 

Site  I 

1 
20 
40 
60 
80 
100 
200 

5000 
2500 
900 
450 
300 
220 

5000 
3000 
1600 
700 

380 
260 

5000 
4000 
3000 
1000 

500 
310 

5000 
4500 

4000 
1400 
600 
360 

5000 

1800 
620 
290 
170 
136 

5000 
2400 

900 

400 
260 
190 

5000 
3000 
680 
240 
130 
88 
:   45  j 

the  elimination  on  Site  I.  An  average  of  2500  trees 
dropped  out  in  20  years.  More  elimination  had  taken  place  on  3ite  I 
at  20  years  than  on  Site  IV  at  40-60  yenrs  and  above.  Conservative 
thinnint.  effect. 

Poor  nites  have  less  growth,  even  with  more  room.  These  ate  all 

i  figures. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  pines  dropped  out  rapidly,  because 
of  their  intolerance.  Site  I  pine  land  is  nevertheless  poor  land. 

Die  oak  site  is  good  land  and  there  is  less  decimation. 

The  besch  follows  the  spruce;  it  is  fully  as  tolerant,  but  has 
a  larger  crown  and  demands  more  room,  otc. 

A  100  year  oak  is  only  half  grown.  It  requires  a  2-century  rota- 
tion, so  the  above  figures  for  oak  are  not  quite  in  the  same  class  as  Hi 
the  othfl. .•;',.  Oak  at  20  years  still  has  enormous  numbers  of  trees  per 
acre,  and  the  big  drop  comes  at  20-40  years. 

i.  A  similar  decrease  in  numbers  takes  place  in  wild-woods, 
tho  here  it  is  more  erratic,  slower  or  faster  in  different  ca.^es.  If  it 
is  too  slow  for  the  good  of  the  stand,  the  stand  is  stagnated,  usually 
on  poor  sites.  But  lodgepole  on  a  good  site  may  do  the  sa^d  thing.  Jack 
pine,  .Norway  pine,  and  spruce  also  show  this  effect. 

J_.  The  forester  is  interested  in  the  amount  of  growing  space 
necessary  fot  the  tree  at  different  periods  of  its  life  on  properly 
stocked  land.  One  acre  contains  about  4900  square  yards  (70  x  70);  call 
it  5000  aq.yda.  Then 

>flPQ •  no.  of  sq. yds. growing  space  per  tree. 

no.  of  trees  per  A 

In  the  wild-woods  the  trees  are  placed  more  irregularly  than  in 
a  cared-for  stand,  and  they  grow  more  irregularly.  The  freeing  and  rid- 
dance of  suppressed  trees  takes  plAce  by  fits  and  $erks.   Groups  of 
trees  are  separated  out.  They  lack  balance  or  adjustment;  there  is  a 
greater  number  of  trees  ftn  a  young  stand,  and  they  clean  more  thoroly 
than  in  the  old  stand,  where  there  is  a  smaller  number. 


Growing  space  is  important.  How  much  room  should  the  different 
species  have  nt  different  ages?  A  few  figures  are  given  for  reference: 

1)  Pine  )         -t  20  yrs.   2  yds.sq.   or  6  ft.  sq. 
Beech)  Site  I  :    40       3  9 

Maple            60  4  "12 

80  5  "   15 

100  6  "   18 

120  7  "21 

160  8  *   24 

200  9  "   27 

2)  Spruce) 

Balsam)  2  5$  less  than  above. 

3)  Oak:  25;"  more  than  above,  especially  after  60  years. 

These  figures  should  be  helpful  to  give  some  idea.  They  ^  are 
er».sy  to  remember  in  sequence,  if  the  run  of  the  figures  be  noticed, 

k.  The  stand  forms  a  cover  on  the  land.  Is  it  fully  or  parti- 
ally stocked  and  "/hat  is  its  expression?   A  crown  cover  is  shading.  It 
may  be  one-  storied,  two  or  more  storied,  or  it  may  form  an  irregular 
canopy.  This  differs  for  pine  and  spruce.  The  spruce  has  a  better  and 
more  perfect  cro^Ti  cover  than  pine. 

The  -crown  cover  must  be  estimated;  it  can  not  be  measured.  A 
convenient  standard  of  estimate  should  be  used. 

I.  Best  way:  In  order  to  arrive  at  definite  measurements  we 
commonly  employ  the  sum  of  the  area  of  the  cross-  sections  of  trees. 
Caliper  the*  tress  and  get  their  areas  (in  cross-section).  Assume  such 
a  figure  as  200  ft.;  perhaps  a  good  fully  stocked  stand  should  have  220 
ffet."  This  gives  us  a  means  of  comparison:  Europeans  divide  this  by 
the  n.rea  of  an  acre,  43000  feet,  say.  Then: 

S°ft.  -  «-3L  -  ,  2.15^,  ratio  of  sum  of  areas  and  land. 
43000    22p 

This  ratio  ordinarily  ought  to  vary  between  0.15$  and  0.50$,  as 
trees  grow  larger  in  area  as  they  grow  older. 

Another  European  method  is  the  use  of  the  distance  factor.  This 
is  a  different  point  of  view.  As  before,  calipering  gives  the  average 
CL  i  n  .m  6  1  G  r  s  t 

185  trees  per  A  at  20"  ave.  diam.  gives  1.6  ft. 


SQ.QQ.S  no.  of  sq.yds.  per  tree,  gives  distance  between  them;  ab- 
out 25  sq.  yds.  or  5  yds.sq.  Call  this  "e"  a  15  ft. 

,  AS.,.,  m  o.9ft.  or  over,  which  is  the  distance  factor. 
d  i  am  .    1  •  o 

The  following  table  shows  how  this  works: 
Beech  (an  actual  case): 


Age  in  yrs. 
Ave, cross-sec . 
pj  stance  factor. 


TJcT": So  :  100  :  120  : 
100  :  120  :  140  :  160  :  sq.ft. 
17.5  16  :  14. §  14-»-declines. 


If  a  stand  at  80  years  had  a  distance  factor  of  23,  it  was  under 
stocked,  as  may  readily  be  perceived  from  this  table.  Thus  the  distance 
factor  gives  a  clue  as  to  the  condition  of  the  stand. 


146. 


m.  The  behaviour  of  the  tree  in  the  stand  is  partly  good  and 
partly  badT  Trees  help  each  other: 

1)  They  protect  the  site  for  each  other. 

2)  They  protect  each  other  from  the  wind,  snow  and  frost. 

I)  Treee  force  each  other  to  take  on  bet£e»xf  form,  a/  cleaner 
bole   and  higher  ounlity.  The  tree  itself  cares  nothing  about  the  last 
point;  the  first  two  only  are  important  to  the  tree  itself.  Here  the 
forest  is  *  grert  factor  of  site;  they  help  each  other,  and  afford 
mutual  protect  if-  . 

Trees  hurt  "each  other: 

1)  Competition  for  soil,  moisture  and  light. 

2}   Retard,   each   other's   growth,    fruiting  or  reproduction,    and 
in  very  dense   stands   'whey  fti&l&Ik  diminish  each  other's  vigor  and   safety. 

3}  Smaller  individual  ^rov/th— a  longer  time  elapses  before 
they  are  valuable  to  nrm. 

n.  The  edge  of  the  stand  presents  important  peculiarities,  yet 
they  hr.ve  never  "been  dealt  with  extenoively.  Mayr  was  the  first  to  treat 
of  thin  point.  It  has  "been  stmdied  by  practioners  but  not  much  by 
writers.  It  forms  a  line  of  contact  of  dissimilar  elements. 

Two  trees  close  together  force  the  development  of  one* sided 
crowns.  This  is  of  universal  occurrence* 

The  0ame  if  true  of  the  spreading  tree  in  the  forest.  It  affects 
others  unpleasantly  and  injuriously. 

The  edtfe  of  an  opening  in  the  woods:  develops  poorly  cleaned 
timber;  it  ifTa  border  where  the  trees  differ  from  those  within,  with  al. 
species.  They  are  lirnby  all  the  way  down,  are  one-sided,  and  therefore 
there  sre  no  sstrc-i/->it  Voles,  But  the  border  is  valuable  and  necessary  to 
the  stand.  You^  trees  on  the  edge  have  to  grow  outward  to  get  a  fighting 
chance,  as  for  in«t»BC«,  the  fight  between  oak  and  Scotch  pine,  or 

tween  birch  and  spruce  or  whit©  pine,  they  are  whipped,  crowded,  and 
dief igur 

Such  edges  are  more  injurious  with  mixed  stands  on  opposite  sides 
less  injurious  vdth  pure  stands  on  opposite  sides.  Hardwoods  are  more 

•-ressive  than  conifers,  especially  beech.  The  condition  along  the 
r'dge  are  aggravated  with  respect  to  the  north  and  south  aides.  They  are 
worse  on  the  north  or  shady  side  than  on  the  sunny  or  south  side;  the 
fight  is  e?sier  on  the  south  side. 

In  general  the  edge  of  a  group,  line  or  point  of  contact  of  lar- 
i*r  or  Dissimilar  elements  or  stiff  results  in  a  difference  in  develop- 

it,  injures  growth,  fora,  and  quality,  just  as  with  small  groups. 
is  less  growth  per  acre,  more  deformed  and  less  perfectly  cleaned  timber 
This  is  important,  and  is  well  appreciate-  by  European  practitiensrs. 
They  often  cut  young  balsam  clear  off  of  an  area  to  avoid  such  trouble. 

Fire  lines  and  compartment  lines  also  present  the  above  difficul- 
ties, as  does  the  strip  system  forest.  Choose  the  least  of  several  evils 
According  to  whether  you  want  the  timber  or  the  reproduction,  etc. 

The  edge  in  the  foreat  is  one  of  the  important  silvicultural 
phases  with  which  the  forester  must  deal. 


147. 


o,.  Growth  In  the  ft&Oarcu-for  U-tand.  Schwappach's  figures  \vill 
be  used  irf~the  tholes  given  here.  He  worked  them  up  for  spruce,  pine, 
beech  and  for  oak,  in  separate  book^s.  A  few  have  been  selected  "by  fcr. 
Roth  for  t'iis  topic. 

Volume  growth  of  stand.  This  table  gives  the  average  volume  of 
cordwood  on  Site  I,  on  fi  fully  stocked  acre;  the  figures  are  based  on 
nctual  measurements  taken  every  5  years  &£  under  the  direction  of  the 
German  Experimental  Stations. 

L'pruce  .  Vo  1 . gr  o  v;  tj  I  c d  wd .  Site  I. 


:        :  Av  e  .  t  r  e  e  in  at  a  n  d 

:  Sum  of 

Currtmj 

\  gt*wtli 

: 

trees:  Ht.:Iiiam.:  Vol. 
A^e  :  Per  A,  :  f  t  .  :  DBH  .  :  cu  .  f  t  . 

Vol.  of 
main  otand, 

:  thinning 
:  cu.ft 

1 

cu.ft  . 

«rV 

1 

Ave. 

growth 

a$:  2600    :  22  :  3.0  :  0.25 
40:   900   :  55  :  o.O  :  6.3 
60:   450   :  33  :  9-5  :21.0 
320    :100  ;12.8  ;3?.0 
100:   220   :112  :15.6  :46.0 
120:   180   ;122  :1?.J  :8?-0 
&6ou6b6o»o6uk6ooou^uu^u& 

650 
5700   : 
9600 
12000 
14000 
16000 
T>er  acre  . 

:   0 
:  500 
:2000 
:3oOO 
;5000 
:6lOO 
• 

200 
:  310 
220 
130 
150 
125 

14.0 
4.6 

1-9 
1.2 

0.8 
0.6 

22 

155 
193 
195 
190 

184 

The  "main  stand*  is  the  Principal  stand;  the  secondary  stand  is 
the  thinnings, 

Notice  the  current  growth:  at  120  years  it  grew  1/3  aa  much  as  at 
40  yea:-3.  At  60  years  it  grows  leoi>  than  2>*  in  volu/oe;  this  is  a  small 
interest  on  the  capital  after  60  years. 

It  ia  greatest  at  80  years, 


The  averagg  growth  le  totA 


which  is  later  than  the  cur  ----  §S§-.«rent  growth. 

The  next  table  ia  for  spruce  on  Sites  1,11,111,17,7,  trees  above 
#2     es  in  diameter:  main  stand  plus  thinnings;in  hundred  cu.ft.: 

Total  growth  per  acre  . 


:Age 

Site  1 

Site  II; 

Site  III 

Site  IV 

Site  V  ; 

:  20 
:  40 
:  60 

:100 
:120 

6.5 
62.0 
116,0 
156.0 
190.0 
215.0 

0.8 
33' 

So. 

120. 
150. 

173-    - 

0. 
16 

22 

86 
113 

140 

0. 

6.5 
29 

56 

83 

!,  9i 

0    : 
1.8  : 
14    : 
34    : 

53    • 
no  more  : 

^e  1:  at  60  years  there  were  nearly  £  cords  per  acre.  This  is 
about  the  maximum, 

Site  II  should  have  f  the  timber  on  Site  I,   ) 

Site  III  should  have  J  the  timber  on  Site  II.)  Stock  figures. 

(To  next  page) 


148. 


Current, 


Pino,  beech,  oak, 


.  §ite  I. 


(in  cu.ft, } 


Ajze  i 

;    Pine 

Beech 

Oak   ; 

20 

4-0 
60 

80 

100 
120 
140 

0 
160 

uo 

100 

64 

75 

60 
170 
180 

165 
1*5 
125 

„  100  _.._, 

0 
200 
180 
1JO 
116 

s 

I  Jffi. 

current  growth  coiaee  to  o  ouudiuin  vea.^  Qfir^ff  in  the  life  of 
the   stand;    **t  40  yoars  with  pi#e  and   spruce;   Soyewra  with  beech;   at  12( 


(and  oak) 


Total  Growth 


in  hundred  cu.ft. 


A£« 

Pi  lie 

;  Beech 

;  Oak 

20 
~  40 
60 
Lo 
100 
120 

16 

67 
91 
109 
125 

19 

55 

91 

121 

146 

* 
» 

:   27 

1  112 

:  1^2 

14 

J3S 

168 

;  14 

/c  a  cert   an  age  the  maximum  drops  off  and  the  timber  gets  ol< 
Beech  starts  slowly  but  passes  pine  between  60-1QO  years.   Hie 
>  true  of  oak  at  120*140  years,    Then  it  reaches  its  maximum. 


Growth 


Value  per  cu.ft.  in  cente* 
German  prices  lor  3ite  1, 


u 

;      Pine 

Spruce   ; 

,    Begch 

:   Oak   : 

20 

*»• 

6j/ 

•  «• 

•    -«      * 

40 

6ff 

9 

^•0^ 

:     9-8/sr 

60 

n 

10 

5*o 

:   12     : 

* 

9 

12 

5»o 

»      JwJ          » 

100 

10 

13    TAX 

5*2 

:   16     : 

120 

12 

13 

5-2 

:   19     : 

140 

11 

nor  more 

^'•1 

f    21  .    5 

max* 

Pine  adds  heartwood  as  it  gets  older;  it  is  different  from  sprue* 
.3  is  not  regarded  in  the  United  states. 

Beech  is  used  for  firewood  i;:  northern  Geroieny,  In  this  respect 
they  are  behind  Michigan  today  in  the  proper  Utilisation  of  beech  tirabe] 
The  figures  show  it,  too. 

Oak  varies  in  different  parts  of  Germany,  It  is  often  rejected  ir 
or  of  beech, which  wg,  would  be  glad  to  use.  It  ia  raised  for  big  tim* 
ber  (200  years  for  25X  ave.)  in  the  Khine  country  and  .France.  Its  chief 
is  vender. 

flhen  a  man  pays  $10  per  K  feet  he  pays  6.5£  per  cu,ft«  of  logs, 
counting  10  logs  per  ?.:,  Tiiis  ^iYe.s  us  &  "basis?  of  comparison  between  the* 
-•uropean  figures  and  our  figures. 


149. 


j>.  Growth  in  Uncared-for  Land:  The  trees  all  proceed  similarly 
at  the  otart;  they  must  fight,  success  is  variable,  in  spots  and  clumps 
where  the  stronger  trees  go  ahead.  At  a  certain  age  the  acre  is  stocked 
as  fully  a   it  can  be  stocked.  A  portion  of  the  stand  is  being  annihila- 
ted during     -h,  to  be  thinned  out.  If  the  stand  is  not  cared  for,  will 
this  ^annihilation  go  on  side  by  siue  v;ith  growth?  At  what  time  would 
you  have  the  maximum  amount  of  timber  QJI  the  acre  .  with  spruce,  Scotch 
pine,  etc.?  Annihilation  finnlly  takes  the  whole  stand  at  the  end, 

have  renched  the  no  at  interesting  part  of  ."orestry,  the  devel- 
opment of  stands  of  timber  or  71  10  b.tuajr  ojf  the  L_ife.  of  the  Forest  .Notice 
the  client  fc-  tare-  of  this  development  and  study  them  more  in  detail. 

aoid.      >,  there  eoneo  a  ii/ae  when  the  maximum  stand  is  reach- 
ed, and  it  "/ill  deteriorr-  te  afterwards.  At  isihat  age  is  this? 

•".h  Lk-otch  pine  in  I'icli.  ihi:.?  age  is  reached  at  60  yearo,  if  un- 
carea  for.  Thinning  heirs,  but  not  indefinitely;  the  limit  is  again 
reached  at  -  0  years*  You  must  either  thin  the  stand  or  have  it  die  on 
your  h^.ndij.   The  limit  cones  later  on  in  tolerant  trecc. 

3o  there  are  t/  ro  factors  v:ith  v-hich  the  forester  must  deal: 
In  early  life:  competition.  kills  trees. 
In  maturity:  tr     ie  naturally. 


An  .-.-ven-  \jed  stand:  the  trees  come  up  together.  They  generally  axe 
not  all  one  size,  "out  develop  size  da  sea.  The  difference  is  greater 
in  wild-'voodo.  :;ven  in  cared-for  woodu  in  Germany,  in  a  100  year  st-uid 
of  spruce  '.-n  ..-itc  I: 

Hei^it  varied  from  100  *  down  to  70  f» 
Volume    "      n  100  cu.  ft  .down  to  30  cu.ft. 

This  siloes  a  rac>ier  astonishing  variation  between  a  small  and  a 
tree  in  the  same  stand. 

In  lOO^year  pine  hei^it  varied  from  90  to  00  ft. 
In  90-60  year  beech  height  varieu  from  80-60  ft. 
Generally  the  difference  is  greater  in  tolerant  trees  than  in 
intolernnt  treey.  Vhe  hei^lit  difference  here  v/as  less  tlian  in  spruce, 

£.  The  development  of  a  atand  of  timber  is  never  uniform  on  a 
large  area;  it  varies  from  acre  to  acre,  according  to  site,  accident,  ete. 
Disturbance  may  be  by  single  trees,  by  clumps,  or  by  tracts*  A  large 
stand  rarely  has  the  s^ma  requirements  in  different  parts,  ^v'ind,  frost, 
ice,  etc.,  are  normal  conditions;  insects,  hail,  etc.,  all  affects  the 
tree. 

One  hundred  acres  of  60  year  spruce  densely  planted  is  sensitive, 
and  as  soon  as  it  is  broken  nny  here  trouble  comeo.  The  jlluropean  forester 
uses  .-.mail  compartments,  Find  develops  strong  borders  with  good  crowns. 
It  is  ^ood  Silvicultural  practice  to  havu  as  small  patches  as  possible. 
The  German  forester  today  is  going  dpwi.  not  up,  in  the  size  of  his  pat- 
ches, of  tisn  even  to  20  acre  lot;,  in  b4g  forewts.  Small  lots  are  easier 
to  handle.  If  it  is  injured,  it  is  easy  to  cut  it  clean  and  reforest, 
easier  than  if  it  was  on  a  large  lot.  This  method  gives  a  lot  of  inde- 
pendent pieces,  which  may  be  separated  by  a  lane  wide  enough  to  separate 
the  cro'wns,  :ay  about  a  chain  (66  feet). 

(Insert  :  Dorr  Skeelo  and  Lodgepole  pine). 

Shelterwood  J-plat  forests  near  the  Black  Forest. 

Nature  does  the  s^ine  tiling,  but  is  wasteful. 


ijo. 


(Different  Forms  of  Forests  and  their  jJevelopnieat) 
j^.  All-a^ed  or  '.'any-aged  Stands. 
We  will  consider  the  puae  forest. 

&.  For  this  discussion  we  will  assume  reproduction  by  seed  pri- 
marily; we  will  not  incln.de  'jproats,  tho  they  occur  sometimes.  There  are 
three  conditions  which  arise:      Seedlings: 

1)  Reproduction  under  the  mother  tree.  The  young  stuff  here 
l^cks  li^ht,  suffers  from  severe  root  coiapctition,  is  deprived  of  rain 
that  is  shed  fron  the  treo,  i-.ay  bs  stunted  for  years,  may  barely  live 
v/hen  finally  freo,  nnd  ra^y  ::;Q  on  rus  n.  runt  or  may  recover  and  grow  to  be 
*?.  tree.  ;fo3te.rn  ajjruce  and  southern  pine  are  good  examples.  Austin  Cary 
sent  '  r.  Kotli  a  stem  which  -ns  ljQ  years  old  and  less  than  3  inches  in 
diameter;  what  v;o,'ld.  each  a  tree  o.o  if  released  fron  binding  conditions? 

Id  it  yet  form  «  f^ir  tree'  Jhere  is  always  a  severe  struggle  for  the 
young  trees;  their  t:rov;t}i  is  slow  and  more  or  lean  deformed;  it  rarely 
ever  forraa  ,;oorl  ti:  V<  /•  uu          d  before  it  is  2{;  years  old  even  with 
toler-  nt  specie.  . 

2)  Reproduction  in  gaps  between  larger  trees.  The  seed  from 
the  crown  dro;r>  into  ihc  "trough".  'Jhe  young  trees  has  a  hard  struggle, 
with  especially  cr^.ve  rciojt  competition  .  It  receives 

some  li;ht  ?nd  rain  thru  the  gap;  it  pushes  toward 
the  1  i,-;-}--  1,  fight?  the  edge  conditions  offered  'by 
the  mother  conditions,  and  in  general  is  obliged 
to  bend,  «nd  becor;;.;s  distorted  or  one-sided. 

3)  Ths  young  stuff  comes  up  in  larger  jgaps  between  the  tree« 
It  cornrno.-ly  forms  a  dense  tiiicket,  is  of  small  form;  they  fight  among 
thenoelv'?s  °nd  tho  big  atuff  at  the  edge.  In  this  group  a  few  go  ahead 
and  they  Mnke  fine  trees;  those  at  the  edge  always  suffer  from  competi- 
tion v/ith  olx  trees  n.nd  young  stuff. 


4)  Occasionally  only  a  few  trees  start  thus,  grow  up  as  in 
the  or>en  and  develop  into  large  apreaders,  big-crwon  stuff.  They  are 
under  r.  Lrnost  ideal  conditions  of  space  and  protection.  Mature  keeps  up 
her  influence  and  out  of  many  trials  a  few  succeed. 

It  ia  the  business  of  the  forester  to  help  the  trees.  If  he  has 
more  trees  than  is  desirable  lie  has  the  axe.  But  is  it  easy  for  him  like- 
vise  to  affect  reproduction  iri  the  manv~a^ed  stand  in  a  large  forest? 
The  selection  system  le?ua  to  this  condition.  In  general  it  is  not  easy 
to  rraterially  inf33uence  reproduction  in  the  many-ar-ied  stands. 

b..  Vl/hen  these  trees  become  saplings  they  are  all  right  if  in 
groups  where  they  get  normal  competition,  whenever  they  border  an  open- 

they  tend  to  spread  one-sidedly;  they  normally  clean  one-sidedly,  ter 
to  produce  a  bent  stand,  and  even  a  crooked  stand  in  many  species,  even 
with  sood  trees.  Often  the  sapling  remains  stunted,  defective,  and  hope- 
lenp.  Under  good  conditions  for  growth,  the  growth  is  of  the  best,  be- 
vauae  the  site  conditions  aro  maintained. 

jc.  The  pole  and  tree  stage.  The  timber  is  good;  the  runts  are 
dea-  or  have  been  culled  out.  The  fow  tree?  which  did  start  right  grow 
well  because  of  gooci  protection  a&ainst  wind,  etc,  and  protection  of  site 
Usually  the  timber  in  all-aged  stan'ds  is  especially  sound,  it  has  gre-t 
vigor  and  is  able  to  live  to  s  gro-^t  age,  but  always  a  goodly  per  cent 
are  spreaded,  limby  and  while  hardy  is  deformed  timber.  Good  illustra- 
tions of  these  conditions  are  to  be  found  in  the  wild-*woods. 


cl.  The  statements  in  the  previous  paragraph  (cj  apply  to  tolerant 
nnd  mixed  hardwood  species.  In  pine  and  oak  of  £h&  similar  tolorancy  a 
number  of  trees  usually  give  up,  the  ground  does  not  fill  with  reproduc- 
tion, many  weeds  and  brush  corne  in,  ?nd  the  soil  becomes  hardened. 

Stands  start  in  the  open  and  come  up  in  even-aged  thickets,  -rid 
go  down  together,  giving  rise  to  fungi. 

£.  Mixed  Stands. 

a,.  Kixed  even-aged  stands. 

Different  kinds  start  and  grow  differently  even  in  the  same 
acre.  There  is  a  difference  in  the  rate  and  persistence  of  growth  in  the 
crown.  One  species  mny  ;;r>in  iri  height,  top  development  and  spread,  and 
modifies  in  denning.  This  tends  to  an  unequal  arid  therefore  unsymmetri- 
c-^l  deve.l     ,t;  it  produces  poor,  crooked,  bent  timber,  often  a  result 
of  suppression.  Under  suitable  conditions  the  best  of  timber  results, 
because  the  rite  is  maintained  by  the  mixed  stand:  this  produces  rapid 
growth,  health  *>.nd  longevity,  at  the  beat.  Help  is  not  easily  given  to 
a  stand  of  this  kind,  because  each  species  has  its  own  needs,  differ/ing 
from  the  other  species. 

ID.  I'ixed  many-aged  stands . 

Here  may  be  applied  all  the  statements  under  (&),  emphasize* 
?rywhere  the  edge  conditions  develop:  cleaning,  reproduction  and  growtl 
of  seedling,  sapling  -^nd  pole  arc  as  described  before  but  subject  to  a 
rcore  severs  struggle  because  to  unequal  Bize  is  added,  unequal  kind.  They 
mast  nl?io  fi,-.:-.t  grass  !=md  weeds. 

In  a  mixed  stand  the  seed  years  come  often,  with  the  different 
species,  therefore  there  are  many  starts  and  trials;  some  succeed.  A  large 
proportion  of  the  stuff  becomes  mutilated  and  disfigured  by  the  tremen- 
dous struggle  bet1'/  en  the  different  ages  and  ki/ida.  The  volume  of  good 
merchant- tie  materials  suffers  materially. 

£.  Vila-woods  Stands.   Salient  features. 

-a.  There  has  been  much  misconception  in  regard  to  \vild-woocLs 
from  the  silvacultural  standpoint.  It  has  been  usually  assumed: 

1)  That  they  are  all-aged. 

2)  That  they  are  mixed. 

3J  That  they  are  mixed  singly  or  in  small  groups. 

4)  That  reproduction  is  under  other  trees. 

5)  That  this  form  of  forest  is  rigidly  Adhered  to. 
Most  of  this  is  only  partly  true. 

b.  Reproduction  is  mainly  from  seed,  and  yet  there  is  much 
sprouting,  i  any  species  sprout:  basswood,  redwood,  poplar,  willow,  etc. 

Layering  is  important  in  some  places.  Aspen  and  pure  white  birch 
in  the  Thumb  of  Michigan  propagate  by  layering.  There  are  almost  no  trees 
but  many  young  stands.  7»liite  cedar  also  layered  to  a  surprising  extent. 
"any  of  the  young  growths  there  could  be  traced  to  an  origin  by  layering, 
In  the  Cascades  the  spruce,  balsam  and  hemlock  ofton  produce  dense 
clumps  by  layering,  especially  in  Alpine  woods. 

Reproduction  in  the  form  of  sprout  •/oods  takes  place  over  a  large 
aren,,  especially  on  wind-fall  areas.  They  often  folio   a  seed  forest. 

£.  .Vila-woods  forests  are  well  defined  in  older  and  younger 
timber.  It  is  rare  that  uniform  age  and  composition  occur.  They  are 


poorly  defined  along  the  edge.  Often  they  give  an  impression  of  greater 
uniformity  th^n  really  exists,  tho  clumps  may  be  uniform. 

Perfect  single  tree  mixture  in  regard  to  age  or  kind  is  exceptio 
al,  as  are  also  mixtures  of  pure  groups. 


(1,  Large  r»ren.B  of  hnrdv/oods  are  many  aged  in  the  proper  sense 
of  the  •  orcf;  even  so  it  is  common  for  stands  to  separate  into  older  and 
younger  timber.  ;.'ven-a^ed  stands  occupy  a  very  large  portion  of  the  are 
in  the  went,  especially  short-lived  species,  as  the  aspen,  tamarack  ^nd 
allies;  also  on  fvpecir.l  r^itos:  an  lor^epole  and  Jack  pines,  on  mountain 
sides  and  o-°n(.  . 


also  ooour  in  the  wild-  woods  quite  corrii-ionly,  stands  which 
called  "All  old  stands"  or  all-old  timber.  They  are  not  even-aged  stand 
but  ore  composed.  entirely  of  c^ld  stuff,  '-uch  occur  in  western  yellow  pi 
suf.  '    -nG9  roohvo  •>(,',  rert  fir,  the  southern  pinery,  I-Jorway  and  white  pin 
eastern  spruce,  hemlock,  arid  some  harav/oocis. 

o  all  old  '      in  the  end  of  r.ny  stand  under  ordinary  condi- 
tions, if  no  injury  of  calamity  happens  10  the  faresc.  *o  the  young  man 
they  m  •••»;/  Appear  even-a^ed,  "but  they  may  vary  from  l^'O  to  3^0  years  in 

.  ".-inally  decay  aots./in,  ana  they  break  up  rapidly  v/h«?n  they  do 
br..   .     t  of  the  lumberman's  logging  timber  is  this  all-old  timber, 

The"reserve  tree"  form  also  occurs  in  the  west.  Here  the  bilk  of 
the  st'-.nd  •      en  dropped,  leaving  a  few  old  ones  standing.  Then  seed 
blown  in,  fta  elr:,  a.v^en,  etc.,  nnd  soon  produce  a  cecondary  stand,  with 
one  or  two  old  pines  towering  over  it.  .This  is  coirjuon  in  Michigan. 

'-he  two-story  forest  is  *lso  a  natural  form  of  wild-woods.  This 
form  is  often  found  in  pine  and  hardwoods  in  the  Great  Lakes  states,  an 
with  pin   -ma  hemlock  in  .New  York.  This  form  may  be  produced  in  two  way 
1)  All-old,  simply  differing  in  height:  white  pin?  *nd  hardwo 
Natural/  under  -pi  anting,  r.s  vritli  beech  under  oak. 


j3.  Pure  and  f/ixed 

1)  Hardwoods  arc  generally  mixed;  they  are  pure  only  on 
special  nit  -a,  often  as  temporary  stands.  Aspen  ."rid.  vfoite  birch  form 
such  t^r;     y  stands.  Scrub  oak  is  permanent.  In  sou  them  swamps  10-20 
-or'  r,  of  pure  black  gum  are  often  found  as  a  permanent  form. 

2}  Coniferous  forest  are  largely  pure.  Usually  they  are 
of  bettnr  than  7K''  of  one  species.  Over  ^"0>  of  our  coniferous 

.,  poosibly  80/:'.  X}iio  aliov/s  indisputably  that  in  the 
Jnitdd  states  wild-woods  are  not  nixed. 

£.  Tlie  reproduction  of  \7ild-\voods  is  largely  fron  seed.  A  lar, 
amount  of  reproduction  takes  place  from  ttie  sides,  blown  in  on  bare  larii 
Such  is  the  c-iae  vrltli  lod^epolo  ??.nd  Jack  pine.?.  Reproduction  may  also 
occur  fron  artificial  seeding,  from  birds,  and  from  some  sprouting. 

g;  .  \Vild-  voodn  keep  the  land  pretty  well  covered  and  over  larg< 
areas.  They  are  continuous  in  arer.  and  continuous  in  time,  l»arge  areas  < 
bare  lane  are  duo  to  failures  of  forests;  they  are  more  common  in  coni- 
ferous forests  and  especially  on  bad  sites.  ,  uch  i-.ay  be  illustrated  by 
Ontario  and  its  white  pine,  which  has  been  burner  over  repeatedly.  The 
Rocky  !'ount<-,ino  ;;PVO  such  situations  r,lsor  and  the  Fringe  forest  is  an- 
other ex-nple. 

Growth  in  the  wild-woods  is  continuous  and  large.  If  the  soil  is 


153- 


good,  the  trees  are  healtfry,  there  is  good  active  chlorophyll  producing 
food|  anci  then  later  the  decay  is  tremendous.  Hardwoods  in  southern  J  ic 
make*  wood  at  the  rote  of  1  cord  per  yenr,  and  then  later  decay  sets  && 
at  the  same  rate.  How  much  must  the  Forester  leave  on  the  land  to  keep 
the  conditions  for  fertility?   Should  he  leave  just  the  leaves  and  bran 
che  s,  or  more? 

l-;ven-aged  and  all-a-cd  stands  in  wild-woods  go  out  rapidly  when 
decline  sets  in.  Lumbermen  have  furnished  valuable  Information  in  this 
spect.  In  wild-woods  of  n  certain  rotation  it  sometimes  happens   that  t 
ordinary  lif  •  of  the  species  is  longer  than  that  usually  set  by  men,  an 
it  goes  farther  than  the  net  volume  of  the  stand  reached  by  growth.  Thi 
may  often  be  doable  or  even  thrice  as  much. 

h.  Wild-  woods  vary  from  place  to  place  and  from  time  to  time. 
There  is  often  great  variety  to  be  met  -1th,  sometimes  so  bewildering  t 
we  lose  si^it  of  certain  forms  which,  after  all,  make  up  the  body  of  th 
forest.  The  natural  forest  makes  a  dense  cover,  introduces  insects  arid 
other  agencies  to  break  it  up,  and  then  patches  of  reproduction  come  ir 
Thus  Mature  varies  her  program  almost  indefinitely,  with  both  conifers 
and  hardwoods. 


B.  37      G£  r_       ;  ASP  RfiSULTiyq  FORKS  0£  POKBSY. 

This  subject  may  also  be  called  "Silviculture!  Systems",  which  J 
nicer  and  better;  it  may  also  be  called  "Silvicultural  methods"  or  Me1 
s  of  Treatment?   They  have  sometirr.es  been  called  "Systems"  or  f'ethods 
Management",  which  is  not  accurate. 

1.  In  silviculture  we  take  over  from  the  forests  of  Kature  cert? 
forms,  ~nd  we  modify  these  forms.  In  Agriculture,  in  a  similar  way,  the 
took  over  plants  of  Nature,  rearranged,  pnd  spoiled  them. 

Lodgepole  pine  is  a  good  example  of  a  form  of  forest:  it  is  pur< 
and  even-aged;  this  is  very  apparent  here,  and  also  with  tamarack.  In  1 
wild-woods  it  is  not  so  striking;  man^  forms  are  here  present. 

Form  of  forest:  forest  which  during  a  certain  definite  part  of  I 
lifetime  lias  a  definite  form;  example:  ^.odgepole  pine. 

a.  Forms  recognized  in  wild-woods  and  adopted  in  Silviculture: 
These  may  be  considered  under  three  heaas: 


aged,  etc. 


Composition:  pure  or  mixed 

Origin:  seed  or  sprout 

Age:  development:  ^ven-aged,  two-aged  or  storied,  many- 


In  detail: 

&.  1)  Pure  and  mixed  forms*  are  always  distinguished  sharply 

from  beginning  to  end. 


2)  Seed  and  sprout  forests  tend  to  reoenble  each  other.  A 
20- year  old  coppice  does  not  differ  from  seed  forest  at  20  yards  away; 
in  early  life  there  is  a  sh*.rp  distinction  at  close  range,  which  is  no' 
so  evident  in  later  ages. 

3)  Jven-aged  stand, or  form  at  40  years,  either  of  conifer; 
or  hardwoods,  has  just  the  sarue  appearance,  character  and  development 


154. 


regardless  of  origin,  whether  from  seed  blown  in,  planted,  or  shelter- 
--ood.  The  resemblance  follows  from  the  20-3$  year  on,  there  being  then 
no  points  of  difference,  either  advantageous  or  disadvantageous. 


4)  Two-storied  form  starts  as  even-aged  forest,  later 
underplanted, either  naturally  or  nrtif icially .  When  its  real  character" 
develops,  this  form  is  very  distinct,  not  at  all  like  the  even-aged  stan 
The  reserve  tree  form  is  merely  an  extreme  form  of  the  two-storied  fores 
in  v:hich  the  upper  story  is  thinned  to  the  point  where  there  is  merely  a 
lot  of  ecattcrin,     d  treen.  They  are'  often  left  for  seed  trees  and  are 
harvested  vdth  the  next  generntion. 

5)  All-??.£e  or  many-aged  form  is  always  distinct;  it  is  the 
only  form  that  is  continuous  in  its  physiography  and  development. 

The  all- old  form  is  conspicuous  in  wild- woods,  and  forms  a  large 
-r-r  cent  of  the  merchantable  timber.  It  hn.s  not  been  adopted  in  Silvi- 
culture, because  it  requires  too  long  a  rotation. 

b.ln  later  ye?irs  fiil vi cultural  authors  classified  forms.  Gayei 
i   a  not?;le  example. 

Of  the  older  authors,  Lorey  did  not  classify  f orms;  he  classified 
simply  the  methods  used  to  get  these  forms  of  forests. 

1)  Gayer !s  Classification: 

A)  Timber  Forest  (the  Seed  Forest  of  the  Forest  oervice) 
X.  Fundamental  Forms 

a*  •  TT  Q  )"\  «•  ^j  T  t  li  1 1   T  f%  T^T*"i  ct 
j   •  .  '  v  \*  i  A  *"  .  \  £^  w  W.   A  W  Ju  I*  i  r3 

1,.    Clear   cut 
j|.    31ielter-wood 
3..    Strip   syste./i 

b)  Uneven-aged  forms 

4.  Selection  form 

^.  Irregular  forms  (Gayer  wis  indefinite;  on  a 

100  acre  lot  tltere  may  be  many  small  stands  differing  radically  from  the 
main  st^m- ;  9  "higgledy-jpiggledy"  affair).  3ee  Graves,  later. 

£.  Selection-shelterwood  combination,  ao  balsam- 
spruce  combination.  The  ehelterwood  is  extended  over  many  seed  years,  an 
le^ds  to  a  peculiar  form  of  forest  in  its  physiography.  It  looks  like  a 
selection  forest  on  a  short  rotation, at  an  early  age.  At  a  late  age  it 
look?--  even-agou,  >vith  an  immense  difference  in  the  age  of  the  timber  and 
:Q  ol^.    .  Gayer  bases  his  classification  of  a  -^e . 

11.  Auxiliary  Forms. 

7.  Reserve  tree  forms 
jo.  Two-story  forms 

B)  2»  Coppice  form 

c)     10 »  Standard  coppice. 

Judging  from  the  above  classification,  Gayer  ru^it  have  made  thre 
is  under  age:  even,  uneven,  nna  many-aged. 


2)  $rfiwt$£sj  Classification  (Principles  of  Handling  v/oodlanus 
page  31)  This  a  motiAf icar 

A)  High  Forest  FOJCBL^S*^^^ Timber  forest) 


^.  .   ,lar  or  even-aged  form 
3,.  Irregular  form 


2)  Graves*  Classification  (Principles  of  Handling  Woodlands, 
e  31).  This  is  a  Modification  of  Gayer. 

A)  High  Forest  Form  (  3eed  or  Timber  forest) 
_!.  '..'election  form 
j2.  iiogular  or  even-  aged  form 
^.  Irregular  form 
4.  Two  -story  form 
*•[.  He  serve  form 

Graaey  leaves  out  the  distinction  "between  fundamental  nnd  auxilia: 

form. 

>  Coppice  Forms 

1^.      ,-ir  coppice   (even-aged) 
(2.  Irregular  coppice  (uneven-aged) 
JL.  Standard  coppice 

All  these  forms  differ  from  each  other;  you  cannot  have  similar 
forms  of  forest  from  absolutely  different  origins.  Kven  Gayer  confused 
anc  f  orrn.  A  system  (or  method),  leads  to  a  form. 


£.  These  forms  of  forests,  as  taken  from  Kature,  have  been 
modified  in  practice  to  suit  site,  species,  and  the  notions  of  practione 
These  modifications  may  be: 

1)  In  composition.  As  fron  pure  to  mixed  forests  and  betwee: 

2)  In  area  arrangement.  Any  form  of  forest  can  occupy  a  lar. 
area  or  a  small  aroa,  or  it  may  take  a  whole  Compartment,  strip,  or  irre 
gulpr      .  -'his  area  modification  led  to  much  Codification  in  writings 
and  U      SB  in  regard  ->o  tiie  different  systems,  ?,nd  in  literature  are 
to  he  found  many  different  systems  and  combinations  with  pure  and  mixed 
forests. 

3)  The  form  of  forest  may  be  frequently  modified  in  regard 
to  its  adherence  to  a  definite  form.  It  may  stn.rt  one  way  and  may  deviat 
fro      form  adopted.  An  even-aged  stand  way  be  later  underplanted  and 
Tbec0iBea£  Ifroy«i0»ied  form.  A  shelterwood  form  gives  an  even-aged  stand 
in  about  1>"  years;  it  may  be  extended  intentionally,  with  light  cutting, 
and  become  a  combination  of  selection  and  sholterwood  forest.  All  gra- 
d-tions  ara-  possible  between  these. 

In  Germany  they  combine  the  selection  and  sheltwrwood  forms  on  th 
ed£e  of  a  forest.  In  France  there  is  a  variety  in  coppice  practice;  much 
is  clear-cut  and  even-aged;  in  some  parts  of  France  they  cut  only  part, 
which  produces  a  two-storied  form,  or  even  a  selection  form. 

•>yr  classified  72  different  Gilvicultur.il  systems,  each  with  a 
name,  which  had  been  introduced  and  practiced  for  some  reason  or  other; 
all  were  successful,  and  had  good  standing  in  literature.  1'ut  all  of  the 
forrr.s  of  forest  produced  may  be  classed  under  one  or  other  of  the  few 
groups  above  mentioned;  they  are  merely  variations/  or  modifications  of 
the  few  primary  forms. 

J2.  Systems  o£  Methods. 

a.  .Mature  produces  the  principal  forms  of  forest  by  dinstinct 
73  of  reproduction*  rather  than  by  influence  or  care  after  the  stand  is 
started.     1 

1  By  sprout  or  seed. 

2  Restocks  burns  or  clear  areas  by  seed  from  neor-by  trees 

3  Starts  young  growth  in  the  open  parts  of  the  stand  long 


156. 


before   the   old   stand   dia-  ,    -  s   in   the   ehelterv/ood   form.    The   old 

stand  m.-r/   remain   till    the'  twc-storied   form  comes.    ?7ith  a   small  part   of 
the   old    et^nd   the   reserve   form  appears. 

4)By  the  n-me  form  of  seeding  in  irregular  areas  and  at 

various  times,  thus  producing  irregular  forms,  while  in  other  pl~cee  for 
certain  periods  it  continues  to  give  «n  even  distribution.  This  produces 
characteristics  of  anall-a^ed  or  many-aged  form. 

b.  Van  has  only  modified  these  methods;  he  has  systematized  tJa< 
work,  extended  nrid  perfected  artificial  ac  against  natural  reproduction, 
tho  he  has  not  welded  any  radical  improvement.  Like  Mature  he  depends 
primarily  on  the  ;r.:Uiod  of  reproduction  which  gives  tlie  particular  form  < 
fore  t  desired.  'Jhe  methods  of  reproduction  are  therefore  so  intimately 
wrapped  up  with  the  forms  of  forest  desired  thst  the  classifications  of 
forms  h»s=!  not  r  if  from  the  methods.  Tims  the  methods  of  re- 

production  took  on  the  dignity  and  importance  of  Silvicultural  Systems; 
eo  in  speaking  of  ^ys terns  v/e  mean  primarily  Reproduction  arid  not  Care. 

These  methods  may  be  modified: 

a)  In  rt     to  coraposition. 

It)  In  regard  to  origin  or  Manner  of  starting,  aa  seed  or 
rout,  ^eed  v\uy  oe  classed  under  three  heads; 

1}  Seeding  or  planting  in  the  open;  reproduction  after 

the  stand 

2)  Seeding  under  trees  befores  the  otand  goes. 

3)  deeding  under  trouo  continuously  v?ithout  the  removal 
of  the  stand  . 

c)  In  regard  to  tlie  time  employed.  Clear  cutting  may  thus  b< 
modified  for  some  cases.  Some  stands  seoci  from  the  aide,  o there  seed 
gradually,  10-lb'  .•'     •  according  to  tlie  seed  yenru.  Uhe  shelterwood  syS' 

,  with  one  seed  fall,  may  take  kO-k^'  yearr> .  Tliis  may  be  modified  by 
-tific.         iction,  A  slielterwood.  on  slope  land  may  have  seed  years 
every  {)  or  6  yoors,  and  continue,  for  ^0  years  in  all.  A  selection  system 
seeding  ycr-r  by  year  has  continuous  reproduction.  Thun  these  methods  may 
led  R  greau  ueal,  in: 
Area, 
Size, 

id  the   Sli?     id  position 
'•vhich  is  taken  in  liand  at  any  one  time. 

le  examples  will  fee  given  as  found  in  practice: 

A  simple  case:  clear  cut  form  with  natural  or  artificial 
reproduction  on  a  good  sized  tract.  A  vdiole-40  acre  plot  is  cut  over  at 
one  time.  On  a  small  piece  may  ur,e  artificial  reproduction,  except  that 

ny  foresters  are  afraid  of  small  stride;  they  like  large  pieces.  On 
small  plots  there  is  not  enough  work  to  keep  gangs  of  men  busy,  there  is 
a  smr»ll  -mount  of  r,tock  and  transportation  for  each  plot;  they  are  claim 
to  be  expensive  and  "puttering*. 

The  regulation  way  nov  is  to  take  it  by 
strips  in  successive  periods  of  ye^rs. 

In  intensive  tracts  as  in 
ii,  odd  blocks  of  I? 
to  10  acres  could  Vie  treat- 
ed thus. 

Compartments  may  be  formed  on  a  large  property,  and  each  compart- 


157. 


ment  may  be 
taken  in  strips. 

They  may  ap- 
pear even-  aged, 
but  in  cross- 
section  they 
will  look  some- 

l  like  the 
following 
Sketch: 

This  is  Ac- 
tually done  in  Europe. 

Another  modification  is  snail  patches  of  defective  timber.  Clear- 
cut  ti          is  actually  used  vfrien  the  forester  gets 
rid  of  this  defective  timber  on  tnose  plots,  and  he  prac- 
t  i  eally  re  s  to  c.k  3  . 

If  in  4  or  ^  years  he  finds  the  same  disease  spreading 
he  way  cut  along  the  dotted  lines.  This  cutting  will 

really  take  the  form  of  a  atrip.  So  he  has  here  changed  from  the  patch 

to  the  atri^  method,  but  he  has  not  changed  to  a  new  method;  he  has  mere. 

modofied  1     neral  method  in  regard  to  the  shape  and  area  and  position 

of  cut. 

A  few  definitions  may  be  of  convenience  here:      (U.S.F.S.) 

1)  Grcrip  method:  a  method  of  conservative  lumbering  in  which 
y;roa-s  of  youru1;  trees  which  have  sprung  up  in  openings  caused  by  logging 
insect  dww   ,  windfall,  sncv/break,  or  other  agency,  are  taken  as  atart- 
ing  points  for  the  future  forest;  or  if  these  are  insufficient,  small 
openings  are  purposely  made.  Reproduction  by  self  -sown  seed  from  the 
iturt  itand  at  the  edges  of  these  groups  is  secured  by  careful  cuttings 
ich  extend  the  groups  until  they  join. 

;  Patch  method;  The  clean  cutting  of  small  patches  to  invite 
reproduction  by  self-sown  seed  from  the  surrounding  foreut. 

})  Strip  method:  That  method  of  conservative  lumbering  in  whic. 
reproduction  is  secured  on  clean-cut  strips  by  self-sown  seed  from  the 

sd  joining  forect. 

4)  Stand  method:  That  method  of  conservative  lumbering  IB 

Ich  reproduction  is  secured  from  self-sown  seed  by  means  of  successive 
cuttings  made  thruout  the  mature  stand,  thus  leading  to  the  production 
of  a  new  stand  approximately  even-aged.  These  successive  cuttings  encour 

9  seed  production,  dreate  conditions  favorable  to  the  growth  of  seed- 
Ung«,  and  gradually  remove  the  remaining  crees  of  the  mature  stand  as 
tlie  youn^:  growth  develops. 


In  the  West  other  modifications  are  used*  Some- 
times a  whole  eighty  acres  may  be  cut  but  in  an  irregular 
f  orm. 

Scattered  seed  trees  method  (Graves):  Patches  may  be  left 
with  seed  trees,  say  2  per  acre,  vould  there  be  too  many 
seed  trees  to  be  a  clear  cutting?  Hot  with  lodgepole  pine. 
With  yellow  pine  40-50  seed  trees  are  too  many  for  clear 
cutting:  it  becomes  the  shelter-wood  system,  .^upersisor 

W.N.Miite,  on  the  JUtterrot  National  forest,  uses  this  scattered  seed 

tree  method. 


3eserve  stand  method:  leave  trees  which  you  are  sure 
will  stay  for  a  long  time.  Select  unusually  good  arid  haraj 
trees.  This  is  a  different  choice  from  that  which  obtained 
in  the  scattered  seed  tree  method.  Here  the  quality  of  the 
trees  modifies  the  system,  but  does  not  alter  it. 

Groups  of  seed  trees  may  be  left  when  the  clear  cutting 
system  with  natural  reproduction  (which  is  the  fundamen- 
ts ays tew)  in  employed.  This  iB  simply  another  modifi- 

tion  of  tile  fundamental  system 

Sped  tree: a  left  in  blocks  is  another  modification  of 

r  cutting  system  with  natural  reproduction.  The 
difference  between  a  group  and  a  block  is  the  difference 
in  their  sixes.  A  block  Mis  the  unit  of  management  trentec 
in  a  v.'orkim;  vlan",  and  contains  at  least  two  compart- 
ment- .   xere  are,  therefore,  MO  re  trees  in  a.  clock  than 
in  a  gro-jy,  and  the  size  of  the  plot  is  larger.  So  here  the  size  of  the 
plots 'mo:;i.1'i'     •  fundamental  system. 

Thus  we  see  thnt  there  are  many  mociif icrxtions  of  the  f uridamental 
c?epr  cutting  Syste  i  either  natural  or  artificial  reproduction.  It 
is  t}ir,  88  in  all  cases,  out  is  Applied  differently  in  details. 
Thewe  modification?  ->re  based  on: 

1)  .distribution  of  seed  trees 
2-     'it/  of  need  trees 
11        :f  seed  trees 
4)  distance  of  seed  away 
J )  Area 

-a.  Shape 

b.  Size 

_c.   orntion 

system 

2)  l>helter-wood  form  is  just  the  same  in  practice  as  the  clear 
cutting;  system.  For  instance,  on  this  40  acre  plot, 
the  forester  might   cut  for  light  in  1910 

cut  for  seed  in  1915 
cut  clenr     in  192C 

Another  and  a  very  common  modif icrtion,  is  to  cut 
P.B  above  in  R  moderately  sized  comp-irtment .  The  same  can 

done  with  a  big  set  of  compartments.  It  may  also  be 
trird  with  patches  of  defective  timber,  often  with  natura 
reproduction  already  started  in  beech  or  balsam. 

A  common  modification  of  this  is:  to  be  sure  that  you 
systematically  cover  your  compartment,  use  strips. 

Some  people  modify  modify  this  in  still  another  way, 
in  the  sketch  at  the  left. 

In  this  modification  the  idea  is  to  get  less  of  a 
sweep  of  wind,  especially  when  the  windr,  are  hot  and  ury. 

The  silvicultural  system  used  here  is  the  same  in  all 
cases.   r^he  difference  ia  the  area  arrangement:  the  way  in  which  you 
attack  your  land.  This  depends  on  the  aize,  shape  and  position  oi 


159- 


v/ith  a  ntronrr  border  it  i?  veil  never  to  disturb  tt>  disturb  the 
border  at  first,  but  to  begin  inside  and  cut  a  strip  clean,  then  begin  a 
sort  of  selection  system  on  the  border,  but  not  as  long  as  its  protestior 
is  needed. 

3)  Selection  System:  the  same  modifications  apply  here  as  before. 

forester  may  cut  it  over  all  in  one  winter  and  then 
let  i  t  go  for  15 


Or  .he  nay  u--o  corriv^rtrnoiitr!,  cut  one  at  a  time,  and  come 
bpck  in  IJ  year?.  The  bulk  of  uhe  reproduction  comes  right 
after  the  cutting.  If  cut  ».i£.iin  in  19^5»  ue  rnay  expect  the  bulk  of  the 
reproduction  in          ,  in  other  words,  the  reproduction  after  the  £&a 
first  two  cut',",   -  Co  :3  in  1911-191!?,  -nd  1926-1930,  so  thrrt  in  reality 
we  do  not  have  <jn  ovr^-n  ;r-d  stand,  but  a  several-  3  &ed  stand  on  the  same 
plot.  Then  roul        >ut  6  distinct  types, 

Selection  c-attin^s:  the  et*?nd  tends  to  ^roup  itself 
'A  mor-  . 

Various  other  modifications  of  the  Selection  System  ar« 
TTiR.de  as  with  the  other  t\vo  systems. 

t'--n  French  and  Corr.-?.n  terms  are  used.  "Cculisnenschlf 

oh  of  t>i«  confusion  current  in  booko  in  regard,  to  Silvicultural 
•t  -TS  i^  bane^i  on  thin  *re«  r^lition. 

4}  ? 

5j  liethods  daturally  vary  but  often  ^rgde  into  each  other. 

(  ?»  )  The  cle<ar-f3ut  v:ith  seed  trees  system  readily  merges  into 
th  e  r?i  . 

(b)  Likewise,  «fter  a  Ion-;  time,  the  shelterv/ood  system  tends 
to  nier/-:e  i-ito  the  selection  sy  stern. 

It  will  be  interesting  to  note  the  ground  we  have  covered  thus  fai 
'."•'e  fir:vt  considered  the  sfclient  features  of  tlie  stand,  tlien  tlic  'Vild-v/ooc 
Mnd  ity  varl.ous  forrr.n,  then  we  told  vrhich  of  these  forms  had  been  adoptee 
and.  then  the  methods  used  to  £et  these  forms,  and  then  the  way  in  which 
these  methods  have  been  modified  according  to  conditions. 


6)  These  modifications  *r<*.  interesting  to  the  United  ijtntea:  we 
3  just  developing  our  literature  and  our  methods,  and  so  we  must  under- 
st^nd  clearly: 

(a)  T/nyr  enumerated  70  methods,  falling  under  the  fundamental 
P,  viiich  are  modif  icn  tions  of  the  fundamental  metliods  according  to 
and  time  (speed). 


(b)  The  fundamental  forms  or  systems  group  as  follows: 

(1)  Clear  cut  with  reproduction  after  the  crop  is  removed, 
leac'ing  to  -°n  even-n^ed  form  of  forest. 

(2)  Shelter^vood  &ftS£t&&  v;ith  reproduction  before  trie  entire 
crop  is  removed  also  le^ds  to  an  evcn-a^cd  form  of  forest. 

(3)  3e3  action  system  with  reproduction  continues  all  the 
time;  where  the  stand  is  n^ver  removed  entirely  it  leads  to  a  many-aged 
form  of  forest. 


l6o. 


(4)  CoTJpice  where  cut  clear,  represented  "by  sprouts,  lends 
to  an  even-:iged  8tand. 

(>}  Standard  coppice  may  be  a  combination  of  2  distinct 
systems  on  the  same  area: 

i..  Ordinary  coppice  leads  to  an  even-aged  stand  . 
i  i  .  A  modification  of  the  election  system  leads  to  a 
stand  on  the  same  nrep. 


7)  'Ve  lenrn  much  from  classification?..  The  following  are  classi- 
fications from  L,oT(       from  ur"vr%  and  shcv  ho1?  those  men  looked  at 
the  subject  from  different  angles. 

a  }  Lorey  in  --n  older  edition  of  his  famous  lianobuch  classified 
Bilvicultur  1         in  1          .   sarten"  (tt  system  of  Management). 
•  the  •  a  terminology  is  not  in  favor  now;  we  should 

use  y.ilviC'.-       '-y  E?  t  ';.»'.  s,  not         -nt  systems.  Yet  Lorey  is  a  good 
autlior,  in  «pi       uiie  f  net  that  he  did  not  h'.tvc  C-hc  ri^tit  poiritt  of 
vie  . 

A..  .;-ii  61  Forest  or  Seed  Forest. 

e  tree  originntes  from  saed  and  tlie  tree;  is  used  but 
once.  A  nprout  nta-ip  -?i.ll  Inot  tliru  many  plrintin   . 

1,.  vicproduction  .^ooa  on  thru  the  entire  rotation. 

li  The  selection  syst-:r.  ^roducee  an  (il]L-agod  or  many- 
aged  Gt.-i^a. 

2.  Reproduction  occupies  only  part  of  the  period  of  rota- 
tion n.nd  lends  to  an  even-ri;j;cd  or  nenrly  even-^.^  d  fonn  of  stand. 

1)  Clear  cut  systtem  r?ith  artificial  re  orodution. 
2} 

3)  Shelterwood  oyster;. 

4)  >elecction-shelter^ood  systerj.  Tliis  is  tlie  siielter- 
'jrn  rjrolon^eci  over  40-^0  fears, 

Coppice  Syste 
c;  .  .itnndnrd  Coppice  i^ystcn. 


rey  felt    th.»t  )ie    ought   to    sep^rRte   the   Delect/ion-  Slielterv/ood 

UTP  other??  . 


b)  Gayer:  nearly  follows  th^  classif  ication  of  ?orms  as  given 
before  ( 


c)  iiajir  in  hie  classification  afjRin  npeaks,  not  of  n.  Silvicul- 
tur?         ,  hut  of  a  system  of  ?.Jana£«mont  and  Reproduction,  following 
Lor^ 

i^.  Clof:r  cut  system,  with  J  modif  icaiiions  . 

_2.  olielterwood  system,  including  the  selection  system  as  a 
form  or  method  of  ahelterwood  on  smallest  areas  and  for  long  time  periods 

_ch  is  quite  curious.   ?he  selection  system  should  be  kept  separate 
from  the  shelterwood  as  2  diatinot  ayntcrcs:  they  ^ivc  different  Forms  of 
'Joret-:t,  ana,  also,  'v'&yr  makes  his  classif  icaticn  more  complex  than  neces- 
/.  It  all  deperidK  on  the  point  of  view. 
^.  Coppice 
4.          Coppice. 


161. 


d)  Graves  (in  IT         of  ':a^uli.'.;£,  W6<     is/ 
I,  By 0 tec*  depending  on  Xc^roduotiGj-  .'.„•  iie^u. 
A..  Selection  -rj'st;. 
3.  Clear  cutting  BV  : 

]L.  Clrrr  cut  vrith  Artificial  reproduction 

.'hole  ct^./id 
(b)  atrip 
(<:}  l-ritch 

<2.  Glaar  cut  with  aaturn.1  reproduction 

t  once 

"  scattered   seed   treerj 

•,>ups   cf    sued   trees 
'*  fifty   strmuards 

(f)    Clear  cut   in 
lear   0 
rood    i?ys'' 

.  I    unif  ox*mly 
ng  in   i;ro.,ps 
:,rips 


I 

)  Modifi- 

}      cations, 

) 


-  •  on  Reproduction 

in   pnrt    :  .  }  . 

i  ce 

^.    Coppice 

^:.      .  "i      -rod   coppice;    sprutits  arid   aeed 
(long   rotation 


.jprouts   (Wholly  or 


Q-6Q  years 


v-int  here   ie  distinguisliing  between  ^uetema  depending 
on   seed  and   on    sprout .    Ilie   seed   syetow^   a;  according  ao   the 

reproduction  follows   the   cut   ?*.t   once,    precedes    the   cut   for   ^ome    time,    or 
til   the    time, 

8)   On   every  lar^e  prop/erty  ri  coir*i1>i nation  of   these   different   sys- 
tewB   of   tr-.  uttj   is   employed.    Thin   is   a,xi  OHIO  tic,    "because   condition© 

t   different    tr:3*it;:ior;&a    -:rc    r^-uirea.    This   is  found   even 
to   extrr-.  i   on   l.atioiifrl    :?o..  pour   timber,    uae    LUG    selection 

rod.   timber  uae   so;-"    oilier    ^.yavOi.'i.    'ilit:   choice  of   system  de- 
pendo   on   th:     site   -nd    on   tlift    speciea.    3peci«a  favor   or   are   easier    to  hancS 
?ri  th   ^.Js^feftAi  certzin    sy*teai9,    flie   c}ioice   also  depends   to    eorae    extent  on 
the  .  ;-i£  object   of   rai  ..ml; or:    for  protection,    for 

lumber,    for   secondary   uses,    for   j\eot}ictic   yurpoc'-is    on    private   property 
or   in  ,c. 


H'e  hn.ve 
duction   of   the  for- 

ex-  o          rid   ovcr- 

not   only  Reproduction 
icipo r t R n  i .    C'xrts   t ? 
pi  ;  job;    t)iinnin 

brain   work.    Pl»,rit 


that    8ilTioultur«l   ay stems  are  based  on  the  Hepro- 

,    thorrfore   ro production  ia  iniportant,    but   ia  easily 
rntf.'C. .    .In   Ir.to   yf-.rs   wo  h-w  J.AH   to   realize   that 

is   important,    but   Ct^re   of   the  forest   IB  even  more 

e   mid   thcr-.;foro   coot;.   ;'ore    than  i\    **littleH 
-s,    etc.,    nust  be   looked  after.    C^are   taxes  judgement 
:« s    oifpl'2   .f-nd   v.'oll  knov;n.    l^iinning  ?md   caring  foi 


accidents  requiro 
not  to  e;     r.-'te  or 


,  cxporinnce, 

over-. 


and 


It  would  be   well 


10}   Vopt   of   t;  :  7iculturr*j    .'•-.yel'.^'S   *ir«   intimately  rel??.ted   to 

•id  up  vd  Ih   the   Care   of    t  res;t.    In   the   ehelterv/ood   and   sclectior 

systems  the   sue;.  ;-rk  ie  bound  up  with  Forest    utilisation  f    jt   ^ 

1«o   log  on    the   selection    system,    Borntiraes,    and   this  operation  is  not 


162. 


successful.    Thic         .  .  ethelterwood    ^y 

t   rh  CM  we    cr  11    U  ys  terns    of    Conserv-.-  Live-   Lumbering,    ••«   in 

some-  "books    (Sec    0,3,  ulletin   6l,    Terms   ueed   in  Forestry  and  Bogging, 

p^gcs   7,13,18,19,21/22,23,24;    ".nd   oil   rr      coirs)       ..    arc    t^olm;  too   far.    )>y 
usinc   such  nomenclature,      •  ;cjn,    inducing  ^en   in  hi^i  positions,    "in- 

come  misinformed    thru   tho  zincs,    and   think   it    is  merely  a  matter   of 

lumbering.    Lumbering   i  c    toda,        -  ily  j-'ore^t   ^ff.strujc/tiojfl.  .    Our  busi- 

ne?p   of   thfc   •jro-.-iri     of    the   Fortu    . 


;  th    the    car    Sui     ..  B    no    ixlrticn    to    us. 

—     A*    ''eserirticr1   of    tl  c    :'il  vicuitur?-.!    Oyotems;    their   Operation;    the 
Resulting   Forests,    an<      Lh    1.  a   r.ia    di          .    iitot;es. 


in   rcv^i.ru   to    the    systems   them- 
Lvec    -nd    tl.-eir   rcriil^-r;    ve   r.uct   first   '..^ve   curtyin   criteria: 

JL.    Appl  .lity  of    system  to   various   species   ana   sites. 

l  .  ,    of    succtcs   of   the    uy  stern,    especially  in   repro- 

d  act  ion. 

jc.    Ke.-'jlip    -jf    t)ie    system  in   the   quality  of    the    stand   as 
regards   growth   in   volume    °nd    vnlu.  . 

d_.    Ability   of   tlie    ey^  .          rid    tfc  g  Term  of   forest 

tc  -.in    the    site. 

IB.    Value   of    the   resulting  forest   from    uie   "busineas    stand- 
point . 

£.     "-  1  •.  :;   of   the   forest   from   the  political    ecoiioruic    stand- 
point, ;Cially  niirket,    industry,    labor,    protection   of   watersheds, 

capitnl,    utilisation  of   poor   lands,    -xna  finally   tiie    stability  wliich   the 
<  P  .  -o  u  r  e  f  >  .    S  o.nj  e    n  y  s  t  ort  •  s   d  G  go  n  e  r  a  t  e  . 

^  _.    f:peci«.l   Caset*    of    second?*  ry  benefits    MS    -iffcctea  by   these 

^  systerr.-F.  :     pfa:  I       ,     I     .  c,    .-.nJ   nlso    trio   raatt-ir   of   boauty  and 

^  park  us  oc. 

2)          .      Forest    co;;;;)-Mre'l     /i"cli    ."jprout    "'OQUO.    Vhuir   nd 


S  and  disRdvn.nt.-v:c8:           rantaae   of   soed  foro/.t: 

^  a..    The    seed   forsst   is  applicable   to   nearly  all    species   and 

^  all  site-..-.     Ct    nnturs.lly   occupies   Ir-r-ge   arena   ana   involves   large   forest 

f  r  fit    only  for    scco.   forei-t. 


, 


]b.  i;.iture  if-sintpined.  seed  foreste  for  ages;  uian-Ccired  fore* 
are  lr>.  -,'rely  seed  forest:  therefore  there  is  or--';t  assurance  of  success 
an-.    --'.anence,  the  ordinarily  cpppice  is  Die  <      •  of  the  tv/o  to  re- 
produce. 

£.  The  seed  forest  produces  th«  largest  volumes  and  the  besi 


d,.  '.'he  R^ed  forest  runantnina  the  site,  soil,  and  leaves  the 
forest  undisturbed  for  Icn^  periods;  it  furnishos  aenae  cover,  much 
mulch,  ;"GOd  tillage.  Coppice  reqairet;  ^ocu  1-ind  ana  e;--Jiausts  the  land. 


e,.  In  businesn,  the  seed  forest  requires  a  large  capital, 
am.d  therefore  gives  opportunity  for  larger  investment,  and  requires  larg( 
are^p-  for  renl  businesfl.  '.Che  iriterv-^lw  butw..  _  .  theoretically 

norr.ally  lon^  (this  in  eruiil     9>r$tated;  Lc  cautious  in  sucii  statements, 
especially  in  arguments:  investors  are  easily  sc-vred)  but  are  riot  so  in 
practice:  al'ter  the  ^  of  2^-30  years  you  can  get  something  fron:  your 
forest  every  ten  years.  Vith  large  prcp/erties  yearly  crops  can  be 


163. 


obtained  f  •.:•   ifforent  portion*. 

AsBRid  before,  the  seed  forest      I  more  cr.pitr.l.  In  coppice 
you  or-ri  g«t  do'vn  to  :     alf-aore,  Seed  forest  gives  a  larger  net  income 
per  acre  por  yo?  r,  by  <_;ifciritj  us  better  timber. 

vantages:  It  is  claimed  that  the  seed  forest  makes  a  smaller 
interest  on  the  iiive,      .  Va  soon  ao  the  property  pays  a  net  income,  up 
goes  the  land  value,  i-'ine  ia  usually  land  on  R  net  income--the  hit>jher 
the  net  income  Lhe  higher  the  cost.  The  human  element  enters  independent- 
ly. 

The  t?<:9<l  forest  produces  rnorw  readily  salable  material  than  cop- 
pice, and  a  raupj  ••;  -v  Her  amount  of  c.-teap  unmerchantable  goods.  It  require; 
moro  3l:ill  an  3  to  J.        icofl  ;:<f  ully.  -'.intakes  which  the  for- 

est ••  Ft-  seed  fore        (>t  to  live  longer  tiiari  those  made  in 

coppice;       -        tf  'uttii^er  fron  star;:*,  insects,  etc.  The  crop  is 

in  lr«i  ,;•-!•  boc.  .'.  c.  . 


£.  As  a  \vholo,  the  aeeu  forest  is  more  important  and  valuable 
than  the  c-       c^-n  be;  it  supplies  the  marJcet  "better;  it  can  supply 
materials  'vhich  coppice  cannot;  it  affords  more  labor  and  gives  a  chance 
for  mo:;.;  invr     it  of  capital;  it  touilus  up  a  big  property  per  acre.  The 

•te  forepti-  uf  3-iden  ond.  Saxony  could  not  be  "bought  at  vl.;?0  per  acre. 
If  they      -o  triea  to  put  in  coppice,  a  largo  portion  would  have  become 
valuelese.  The  sesd  forest  builds  up  a  property  worth  6  times  as  much  as 
coppice  . 


JiL-at  is  gener^Ii.y  more  stable  ^,s  a  forest  propoerty--it 

receive  B      care  even  from  private  individuals;  it  is  more  important  as 
v;at.       protection;  todiy  it  utilizes  large  areas  of  non-agricultural 

land  vharc-  cj;;ice  would  be  of  r'.uci;  less  vyl  -  . 


oecial  crisea  of  usefulness  are  not  comparable.  Grazing 
co-vr-ice  acre  but  coppice  will  stand  more  abuse,  than  seed  forest. 
Turpentine  optics  only  to  species  v.'hich  grew  in  seed  forest.  Tanbark  to- 

ed froru  seed  for^iic.  Khen  prices  so  up  we  may  raise  tanbark 
coppic  .    r  parks  ^nd  pie.-'  sure  grounds  coppice  drops  out:  it  is  not  an 
attractive  fc     u:iie  people  rt,.  -   the  Adirondack  8  ae  more  important  as 
a  play^roui.      A  as  a  watershed  and  for  timber,  rvaiericans  could  buy  up 
iui        i  use  tht-u1  aa  iuixtur-je  bet/.vc.-jn  v/rter  protection  and  playground. 
.-d  forv'  it   ould  be  the  more  satisfactory  for  such  a  purpose. 


h.  7he  Bccd  forest  is  acin^  more  for  the  n.'iiue  of  Forestry 
:i  is 


3)  Clear  Cutting. 

a,.  The  forest  starts  from  seeds,  orA  volants  nt^rted  artifi- 
"lly.  If  planted,  Boctis  r*rc  spared,  you  oav-  sev^rr;!  yonrs  '.vithout  a 
cov:r,  and  t)ie  crovms  fonn  rin  even  cover;  Etratri  forjp.,  trees  be^in  to 
cro"rd,  tiiers  is  ^rc-^t  ,:ei^:lH.       ,   .u  tht-rt-  are  nu  edge  conditions 
ey.c   t   t  the  ocige;  the  canopy  pushes  up,  the  development  of  individual 
cro"'nn  is  hindci't-c,      ft«  1-eii-jht  ^rov.'tL  cunlinuos.  '-he  trees  are  slen- 

•ct  and  are     .  -ly  cleaning.  In  Uie  sapling  and  pole  stage  ligjit  is 
effective  only  in  tJLe  upper  Ktrata  uf  iVie  canopy.  There  is  equal  reduc- 
tion in  numbers,  the  largest  growtii  in  quality,  the  stand  becomes  largely 
cleaned,  the  canopy  rises  iiiiiii  above  the  ground;  soil  protection  diminish- 
es; the  depth  and  density  of  the  cro\vn  become  variable,  depending  on 
species  ana  site. 


16'i  . 


The  secondary  etano  becomes?  ci:.p"ptesi-cd  ano  i::  removed;  tiie 
stands  be^in  to  open;  the  jrrcntest  thrift  is  past,  r.nd  the  rntc  of  vol- 
ume growth  rapidly  decline, 

In  the  trr  e  st-w.;^  the  maximum  volume  per  acre  is  readied  and  pass- 
ed. the  r-trsnd  opens  up',  the  crows  are  relatively  small,  and  do  not 
readily  fill  gaps,  Any  openings  which  occur  now  must  remain  as  gaps. 
Growth  becomes  slcr-or  -nd  slower;  only  put  on  a  smaller  number  of  the 
l:e?t  treer-*>  nhich  form  tlie  final  ore  .      injury  ->.nd  stagnation  require 
underplrntir      :  .        .   to  help  itself. 

b.  rhic  system  is  applicable  to  any  species  which  tterives 
j  ,1  u  '  o  ru"  si  -  •.  All  os$  all  of  our  forest 

tre  •    in  tills      m  t  ir  or  ^ood  sites. 

If  reproductio  :  is  .^tur-l  fro.ii  the  side  or  from  seed  trees,  this 
.<3  ie  appli<          to  in.       ^G  "bruai'  and.  to  tiiose  species  whicr 
seed  abundantly.     is  also  restricted  to  suitable  sites  —  elm,  ash,  etc, 
Larch  (?)  is  «  <^;  it  is  not  too  lirsby,  and  occurs  on  burns, 

£.  'Die  clanr  cut  -with  artificial  reproduction  system  has 
proven  successful  v)".rever  tried,  and  has  almost  coiupletely  replaced 

:er  s  .rope.  C/dtoeJpall'a  yo  fig  plantations 

FUff  r  ^  .  .    c    .-  hoi  :inu  dry.  In  northern  countries  they  alsc 

suffer  froM  frost  nr.ci  fron  the  freezing  of  the  ground,  ana  the  sapling 
and  $61.         all  pole  ;£t-\;e  suffer  from  snow.  Small  tender  ones  grow 
close  t(  -'i'nr  frora  stoi-m,  but  more  so  in  the  small 

tree  etrv:e.  I      t'ions  ^Iscr  suffer  from  fun^i  ;ind  insect?!.  In  very  dens< 

?  i  an  opening  lor  insects  and  fungi. 

e  biotic  factors  and  wakes  less  use  of  variatioi 
in  the  soil. 


d.      -       th   in  voli-.^e   ahd    quality  is   in   the   clear/'  cut    syster 
t->  .  st   o'f   any   system  Tor   species,    site  and  tiirie.    i.Vcn   tlie    secondar; 

st.'-»i;  •        "icli   is   oat-to.u)co.,    yield  »   tlilnnlng  material   of  well   cleaned 

.  'Jhc  clej-'T  cat  r?.  not  alWRys  produce  great 

rery  tree  pfter  it->  40t]     r  is  a  vmlttftfcle  stick  of 
tiro"c--r.       conditi  i    ~nd  lihilny  stuff, 

normally  consists  of  a  lar^-  nui.-.'ber  of  troec  of  moderai 
,  .  it  often  hac  Loo  much  defective  material  if  kept 
too  denne. 


jj.    'Jh<.?   ability   to  inaintain    Ui«;    soil    is   g*ej  t,    especially  i] 

..;    it    decreases   v;ith   trev   afc'c   and   is   iiero    in 

•loci   b  :    cutting  aria    Uie    clo^ia^;   ap   of    the   next    youri   stand.  Tiiii 

feature    ia    charged  j-.ie   of   t,       gr  --Moat   cLisauvantM^c:*,   of    the    clear   cut 

.    The   ability   to    preserve   the    soil   varies   with    the   species,    as   to- 
n          -1   iritolornrit,    ana   tlii::    difference   is   gr<  "ler-j    than   in   other 

:IB.    For   long   rotrtioiis,    n.»   200   ye^rs   find   over,    where   reproduction 

interval.;,    t>iia   dif  f  ure/ice   ia  r-rat,.    . 

Tlie   difficulty   of  rr:,'U.n-;cU.ii^e;   the    soil   increases   with   the   diffi- 
culty  in   r  action.    ?ho  .  t    you   cut    clean   the   less 

rfeot    the   re  H  iction   and   tlie  more   tlie   land   differs. 


16'j. 


f_.  8«  prefers  the  clonn  cut  nnd  planting  system 

and  has  caunod  it  t     •!«.<;«  other  systems.  *Wio  main  };ointf3  v.'hieh  busi- 
ness con-      'ire: 

(1          ty  of  control,  perfect  control,  simple  book- 
keeoinr. 

"; ^?^:  .2JlA  'J-liLilH  •i/JVvAlg — e^ny   r-  .         :  y  laennure- 

(3)  -Me:l-   reproduction   (?).    Some   question  this 

c  1  -  i    . 

r   chance   in  planting   stuff 

i  antly  of    s  :i-^r  to  m->y.e   fi$it   against  fungi   and 

i'lr,  .2ctf, .    lATQ  rial. 

industry  of   foresters.    One 
••ivoly  in    t)ie   ?i!ielterwooi 

. 

•md   net    incopjes   ;  '/astly   increased  with 

j  t     . . 

1      frorc  .'ts   M.nc.  from   snow  and 

of   the   cl#n.r  cut    system.    But   stress 
be   laid    j>)on    the   los.^  inoectn, 

t-ie   str'ndr)oi./it  'ie    "t--s.te   this   s:/3tem  nbd   the 


•  •.*enl  fo.      ?»nd  do  tV>e  rj«?ne  ;js  under  Eeed  forest 
•),  ercept  th«»t  the  Mernanency  of  the  forent  is  questioned 

•rnd  nl3o  fro-'n  deteriorntion  of  land.  In  the  supply 

of  ds  this  system  xnnd  its  resulting  forest  excell 

^ode  more  extensively  mid  effaciently  than  they 
•c  want  3  feet  of  BoMv/oods  to  1  foot  of  j»£^^tt&&A  hard- 
is  Ki     id  y«      ^ise  it  in  the  the  clear  cut  system. 


h.    n        '"       i'  cut  vfltli  nutural   reproduction  systems 

(1)   >ras  proven   -    failure  in  (.*»ntral     ;urope;    it  haa   auc- 
ceecc  :  well   in   ;:c.^ncinavip   Ana  parts   of    '\ussia.    It  may  be   that 

infT   to   '."nit,    becnuBe   t)ie   noil   is  poor  arid   rocky,    and 
it   otherwise  nnwrw.°.y.    firowth   is   nlow;    they  have:    to   wait 

,    GO   peo      •  "'ililinr  to   vnit.    in  France 

le   coolly,    t)iey   cannot   *fj'orc    to   wait,    or   could 
o,    in    Cent"  POpo, 

IP  no   "beeo:r.ttv   de^d,    brushy;    tlio    seec..   yer.rr;   ore   not 
on   they   come   nrc   dependent   on   the   werj.tlier.  •  Thin   By  stem 
has  .'Oned.   in   '•entr^.l    ..uro      - 

forest    l^nd   is  ^ort>i    ><.^0  avei  .Cental.    Then: 

-nt 


production  .  . 

Rent  r£(j_  «prO        ^^.0.0 

Total  for  10  yr«$2i>'rbo        ^^b'.OO 


ultB:        f-na  variable   iJtand  veil  stocked 
A*-  10  yr  12  yrs. 

e:         ( 


ark 

;aal  Yrrlu^:  -00.00  ir. 

Co  ;ld  not       r.u<a  r,ri«!cies  you 
want;  stand  very  irre 


166. 


It    is  hard   to   -plant   foil   -places   in  natural    reproduction.    (Pail 
spot:    a   pl^ce  where  natural   or  artificial   reproduction  has  failed). 

(3)  If    successful   in   reproduction   the    stand   is   too   dense, 
e,t   lenst   in    spots,,    competition   in   too    ;,-re°t   for   successful    growth,    and 
may   easily  lead    to   a   break-down,    and    therefore   to   the   introduction   of 
fungi,    insects,    and   in    some   cases   to    stagnation   (in   lodgepole).    To   avoid 
these   • 'e    should   use   early  attention,    vhich   is   expensive. 

(4)  If    the    st-vid   recovers   fully  the   development   goes   on 
i  n    th  e   planter1    e  t  B  ^  d  . 

(!>')    ThiB  Triethod  be  nucj\  BOG  if  led,    varying  from  one 

;    tree   per   n.cre    to    solid   "bun chen   on   one    sids--a   shelterwood    standing 
ever    the       '    a. 

(£)    1r  is  method  n   so  auoli  praised  and  condemned 

th«».t   we  need    caution   .-/--inst   extreme   viex?s.    Loblolly,    Jack   pine,    lodge- 
pole,     \        rack,  Iv-ifiscr  extent    r-^ruce,    are    suited   to    this  method. 

-tern   ye. lie  is   perhaps   not    so   w-  11    suited    to    seeding  frorr    the 

side.  -   lees   diotance   to    which,   it  will   seed,      iifred 

H.     Ihi1  In   usi:  .        rood  for  yeliov:  pine.    In  Arizona 

they   feel    I  y,    but    ther-.-    shelter   ngainat  hsct    is   the  nain   t^ing. 

4)    Slic?lt(?rwoocl    ryatem  or   :-tand  i'.etliod    ('Of. 

ycr   call !?    this   a  nr?tur^l   forra   jf   an   even-aged   timber 

fore;-  .  ,  .1.3   qualified    in   tlie    United   ?tr,teij,    :-vhcre   they   seed   in   from 

the    side;    lod-v^-.-jc-l?     1th   natural   undergrowth   iu   sn   e  simple,    or   often 

•roducticr: . 

a.    r:i\cl  od   v/ith   n?.turr>.l   reproduction  developed   largely 

i.  It  has  "b'if.n   1  ./  n.b--.-  .         ruce,    and   entire 

ly   for   pi  illy   the    3t.-ind    i  i    r.  .inned   to    i  late    trees   to    special 

growth.  .  .n  heavily  thinned   Vv'l\en    the    sejd   yc-'-r   coriep.    The    remain- 

in  .-:d   removed   ^ft^r    '-orvinf,   as   a   shelter,    w^ien    the   v-our;g   stand   is 

thorol  ibli^iod.    Tnen   the   tliinuin^   is   done  properly  this    a/iitcra  re- 

id   in   3   cuts. 
Cut   for   lint:    1/3   of   the   timber   is  rat   J?'-lu  years  before 

t'l'1:       8  CUt. 

Cut   for   seed:    another  1/3   is   taken  out   when    the  beed   ye?,r  is  ex- 

tlie    seed   is   already  on    the    trees   or   on   the  ground, 

tly,    removal   n.t    the   finr\l   cj'w    when    -:ho   yuun^  stand   is   1-3  feet 
HtflS. 

In   ordinary  practice  more   th^.n   3   cuts   arc   required,    ana   especially 
t!i^    first    cut    is    replaced  "by   govern!   outs    at    vrrious    i:.  6,      .fter 

5,    rfter  beech  hr.s   responded   to    stiuulus   finotJier  cut    is  made 
for   li  -';\t,    and   then   finally   the   tiiird   cut   is  i;i-":,de.    If  beech  v;ere   to  be 
thinned   too  much   nt   one   thinning  havoc   would  be   created.    The   less   care 
in    the    sapling    Uio  jmore    :fort:>itive    it    itj. 


you  ---th   from   seed   cor.  in   dense   patents;    even 

jes   it;    thi  •  with   J-ight   seeot 

trees   becnuao    t3  •  "ids   don't   go    t-:c    fnr   av-r-y.    Inv^ri^i;!/    (?>    there   are 

r«!     -'ithov.  -id    ^tujiipB    of    t)ie   biggest 

timber,     i  .•    on  pocr   or   1  irby   '3;:cln;    such    ^pot-;   noed   artificial   work. 

Tho   .you)i  -neltrrec  ;    the   amount    of  .pencils   on   Liie   notior 

of    the   fore.  lie  if  .  .e   ar;u  .,nt    the    species   will   endure. 

Shelter   in   provi?  -\f-t  v.dnd;    be<         '  .,  ith   it   the    soil   is 

parotodted . 


167. 


The  growth  of  the  seedling  is  slow  due  to  competition.  In  less 
tolerant  species  like  pine  there  :'.••?  ^rent  danger  of  injury  to  young 
growth  from  too  much  shade, even  to  the  point  of  loss  of  reproduction.  If 
the  shelter  is  removed  the  stand  starts  ns  clear  cut, --but  starts  too 
densely  in  3T)ots  nnd  ^"ints  early  help.  In  patches  of  more  or  less  spindly 
growth:  r     Buffer  from  snow  and  storms,  -hen  20  years  old  it  ought  to 
resemble  an  artificial  stand;  the  rest  follows  the  system  of  clear  cutting 

b.  This      ni  is  applicable  as  follov/s:  theoretically  it 
i.-.-!  j-tood  for  all  species;  practically  it  is  applied  to  but  few.  It  is  pos- 
sible with  ~I1  STJCC     nd  on  p.ll  sites,  if  you  have  to  use  it.  Hartig 
prescribed  th        m  for  all  the     :•  forests  of  Prussia;  they  worked 
in  pi;,       -  r  is  lenst  --lap ted  to  this  syate  . 

To  cuc'ce 

(1;  J3  -.  tree  must  be  tolerant  si  it  v:ill  grow  under  the 
er  tr 

(2)  The  tree  ruust  have  sufficient  seed  yt-*rs  and  be  a  gooa 
r. 

(3)  The  seed'    .jrust  reat  for  a  long  time- -and  still 
recover  1'ror,  r,.;. -_:resei   . 

The  tre<    .  t  still  "be  v/Iridf  ina  enough  so  you  can 
at  CD-  r   id  expose  the  tree.  This  can  not  be  done  with  spruce. 

£.  'Till i-  syst        meraily  advocated  and  officially  ordered 
'13  i          .».  It  •••~.s  the  synter?  v;hich  hoc!  the  most  universal  applica- 
tion of  t;         ]   -19  been  largely  abandoned  for  most  species  in  Cen- 
tr?.;l  56 : 

(1)  '"he  se^d  yenrs  tliere  «ire  far  apart;  some  of  Uie  best 
oion,  1J        cech,  are  poor  seederrj.  'llien,  the  stand  opens;  much 

bio-'s  dj-.Tij  :; .   ;3oil  deteriorate      "beco-:.es  li/nby,  and  closes  up;  there 
is  much  losi?  of  r.ctu-.l  incorae  o.nc.  rent  *ltho  the  last  third  of  tlie  stand 
3 

(2)  The  reproduction  is  dense,  and  requires  artificial 

v-s 

i^  -u  .   . 

(3)  £dge  conditions  obtain  in  f-;,il  spots,  and  they  are  not 
f»lY.ic'_v£  f^:"   -lji^  thrt  can  be  rernidied.  Above  tlie  height  of  20  feet  this 
cannot  be  helped;  the  land  is  practically  waotcc. 

(4)  The  system  did  not  rvork  well  in  important  species: 

pine  either  either  refuses  to  seed  or  the  reproduction  dies,  from  shading 
o  r  •       t  i  o  n . 

d^.  Grovth,  development  and  reproduction  of  the  stand. 

r.  1  ^A&ft  places  p.re  incurs-ble,  and  normally  cause  consi- 
derable lose.  If  the  reproduction  is  £ood  ana  the  stand  variable,  it 

overdenoe  to  normal,  needing  early  attention,  expense  and 
c^re  for  dense  stands.  The  remaining  development  anci  results  are  as  be- 
fore because  the  stand  io  even-a^ed.  Tliis  system  lias  produced  some  magni- 
ficent stands  of  timber. 

<2.  This  system  protects  the  soil  better  than  the  clear  cut. 
The  nlovr  process  is  better.  It  needs  tcl          :r;  where  tlie  process 
fails  and  artificial  help  in  not  given  the  soil  ir.ny  suffer  as  much  as  in 
r  cut 

£.  Intensive  good  business  rejects  the  iaielterwood  system. 

(1)  .-eproduclion  is  too  uncert-iin,  too  slow,  uneven, 
and  dependent  on  need  years. 

(2)  The  young  stand  requires  too  ruuch  care  in  Uie  bush 


end  sapl._  -; 

(3)  The  loss  of  £ro',7th  uuff  ;.roci  by  the  reproduction  is  not 
always  made  ;ip  by  the  growth  of  the  old  stand  as  shelter-rood. 

(4)  It  incren-scjR  the  cost  of  logging  piecemeal,  and  causes 
an  extra  cont  to  prcvcrt  injury  to  old  snd  yo.^i&  Lr.us.  tfhis  difficulty 
£ro7?s,  the  clover  the  fore     velo  s. 

(*;\     --UGC  of  the  injury  to  the  old  stand  as  shelterwood, 
especially  thru  blowdo-vna,  aunsc   .   nd  the  dyin^  of  the  soil.  Beech 
suff  •.    ;;uch  froia  c.       ,  .-.jutij,  pine  from  Bpiketops; 

hemlock  1          .  re  is  no  reproduction  and  shelter, 

6  attention  and  unusual 

knowle     .id  experience  to     re  success,  business  tolerates  and  uses 
the  nyst- 

is  expensive 
or  in\pos:?i":. J.G  ^o 

b;  Tiie  reprO'-.  -  -.. jn  anu  the  uoii  BUTt  siicitered,  wiiich 
ia  CBpeclnlly  valuaMe  in  dry  hot,  alec  dry  cold  «i  our.'. -ions,  and  with 

. 

cj    Vi'tto   t,  it    cunditiions   of    site,    a  large   light 

.1  of   'j'jonci-  ^,       -it.   system  may  prove   profitable. 

d)    V:iLh  -ecie.s,    as  bcecli,    balsar::,    hemlock, 

ti*o   c-  it     •   doea    not     -ork  well    ^nd   the  forester  is   obliged  to 

;d. 

ud   due a  not   produce   the  net   in- 

,r  cut    sya  ,      xc«     .    in  bee  .  sstra,    Tiiis  has 

been   ni^jiLed   tho   deTaonotr-    ..  .        „  .    *lie    clt?sr   cut   and  planting 

sy  r  monc-y  for  t.  n  forester   than   the   sBielter-A'ood 

oinee..  . t    of    vieifrl 

&.    ?roo   Llio    .   .         point   of    the    >.ltai,u    Iho    shclterv;ood   system 
cloacj./  ;yi  th    t,.c   clcsr   cut    sysiiofii.    it   has    tii€    .-.<<  /•  .^age   of   a  little 
-i.ity;    it  .    en    till   rc-pl-.  cou.    -..ioC.uv^nu^e:    the   shelterv^ood 

not   been   -v-lc    to  2:  od  foreco   on   poor   si  tea   as  well  as 

o.vj.    ouch   aittiti   are   sand,    muok,-   etc. 


h.    The   sholterwood   systen  is  old  practice,    especially  in 
bee  i,    :ind  is   still   used  in   the  orcst   of   ^aden.    They 

use    several    a-  nd    thUv   leisurely   take   out    tiic  &&wk&  old   staiid 

•3    time   in   a  vari-'.^o   number   c:    uuts.   j.cre   the   success   of   thif 
.    The   soil   is   perfectly  pro  tec  tea  but   the   stand   is   normal^ 
un.  be        conBiderr,',;le   a(jc  hns   ed^e   condi-icne   firici   poorly  cleaned   tim- 

ber.   Tli  is  form,    or   variety  of    system,    is   callo>.    by   the   Germans 
and   13   clr.:ise^   by   Gayer   as   un«  .,    aiiu  by  Lurey  as 

by  ;<ouli:   he    ^.-.l.iJis   it  .ids  on   the    lime   of    tlio 


i.    The    ahelterwood   vjiui  artificial   repi'oduction   system  is 
extenaively  used   especially  in  -jenn.'i.rk,    to   &   leus   extent   in  ^ortli   Gerriiany, 
Holland,    -'••elgiur.i,    and  :!orth  Trance.   JB6    Li  lls   tl^e   BO^il    thoroly..      Often 
artificial  £IAft&&&&&&&6&  fertilizers  are   us-:Ci  by  t)ie   banes;    the    seed   is 
put    in,    •  I   in    thic.  ,  t         ;:>ucc(ios    io   t*-          '-nc>-   certain.    U'he 

stand:  ......       aifoiv..,    ana    the   t;rov/th   anu   ue-vclopntaii   is   like    the 

cle-'t*   cut   except   th^Lt    tlie   y.  .nd  needs  more   care   in   the  bush  and 

•iihg  .  .  nctliod   is   primarily    i;u..  lo  beech,    also   can  be 

used   :"or  ni.i  .  .    ,        ih   and    clri.       >lie    system   is   aiv/ays   costly,    pays   crily  on   a 
rear-onahly   good       .          ..ua   in   a   t;oou   locality,    and   v;orks   in    the   airuction 
of   a   clear   cut    fit  and.    3ii*ce    i  nea   u?;e   a    uv/o   cut   performance   they  thin 

out   and   this  leaves   only  a   shelterwood. 


169. 


j_.  The  phcltor-'jood  nyatem  applies  to  lar;;e  and  to  small  areas 
in  the  strir>,  patch,  group  or  any  combination,  "but  it  always  remains  the 
8  system  in  the  characteristic  method  and  result. 

5)  Selection  ^yetem  or  Single  Tree  method. 

This  is  Gayer  fs  Mature  ?orm;  it  is  Nature's  form  of  forest. 
£.  Theoretically  all  ages,  from  the  seedling  to  the  mature 
tree,  exist  on  n.ny  one  acre;  mired,  single,  etc. 

Practically  this  is  rarely  if  ever  the  case.  The  timber  is  usually 
in  ?r  iriany-  -\cred  for-  .    ;her  the  youn<',   Iddle-ag^d  or  the  old  stuff  pre- 
ils  and  for          .l;  of  the  stand.  This  ie  equalized  on  larger  area, 
of  a  thousand  or  iac     ores,  so  th  ;e  &£ifc-l&"6  classes  appear  in 

fairl,     feet  ,         recent'.  tion  is  not  numerical,  but 

i"  -n  area  representation,  as  ther.*  must  always  be  a  Is-r^er  proportion  of 
young  than  of  old  trees;  nor  \       representation  indicated  by  what  is 
in  the  e  veto  -•:;.;  and  always  atv.rts  vri'ch  larger  num- 

bers than  -          this  crn  v.ry.  If  you  plant  3X3^  or  10x10,  you  will 
nor     i/ferent  sxtrv-.  proportion  for  tJie  two  c.^nea. 

.•Iortf:.".lly  natural  reproduction  gives  much  young  stuff  wherever  it  is 
. 

.le  tree  mixture  piclcs  up  in  spite  of  the  forester's  effort. 
It  tends  to  an       ;>;ed  st*?nd.  A  period  of  over  70  years  may  pass,  during 

:o  reproduction  till  the  ;:;t'incl  ie  over;  v/hen  this  is  once 
done  •  .  ts  in  all  over  the  stunc        ins  drifts  in  the 

direction  of  an  even-   -c  alielterv-'ood,  ?.r,  soon  as  the  stand  is  opened  up 
frc 

30d  ny^tcma  grade  into  and  replace 

in  tliig  system.  Here  is  «\  typical  c-ise:  young  trees  start  in 
or  ^ings.  Usually  groups  of  thrifty  seedli.-ic^  t.:ro\v  near  the 

-  oat;,  tc  the  light.  Such  a  small  &reR  is  hidden 
receives  no  attention  -oii^lly  till  t     id  of  the  next 

fore  perish  entirely,  it  may  be  stunted  beyond  reco- 
•y,  or         conposea  of  P.  fev  specimens  m.'iy  ;:;ro"/  up  limby.  This 

ong  the  (?TO  ^  ;••  edge  ru.way«  ••v:xisttt  N-.nd  leads  to  regular  edge 
cor:  ,  146).  if  the  opening  is  small  and  the  trees  about  the 

oung  enough,  as  ;n  h".'ru-i:oods  sorc^ti:  :  03,  they  pusli  toward  the 

~ht  into  ti.e  opening  snd  may  entirely  close  up  the  gap  or  close  so  much 

of  it  ress  the  yo 


If  tiie  forenter  f  oresccd  the  situation  he  helps,  by  thinning  about 
the          ifficiently  to  protect  the  reproduction.  In  this  manner  the 

-;>::  he  bnrvestr,,  thin:.:,  .?.,nd  works  for  reproduction 
cut  . 

anally  in  the  selection  system  the  yoang  growth  starts  and  grows 
clov/ly  '?.nd.  cnly  tlie  better  survive,  and  ranch  of  this  is  stunted.  They  are 
crowded  /'i^ded  .  ?he  youn^  trees  push  up  but  their  neighbors  are  tall 

•e  them  and  compete  ^ritli  them.  On  the  other  hand,  the  neighbors 
protect  the  ycirn^  st-iff  fr.  :id  frost,   .  .  protect  tiie  site. 

t  they  do  not  Afford  rrotec        Innt  sno-r  in  openings;  snow  fills  up 
i  n  r-  1  e  r  d  . 

•ee  gro7?s,  the  croons  puoai  up  against  and  into  the 

crowns  of  the  old  timber,      therefore  edge  conditions  follow.  Those 
along;  the  .       .In  the  center  they  push  out, 

clean  well,  -o,  healthy  timber. 


Various  variations  of  the  Selection  system  occur.  The  nearer  to 
t'-G  strict  selection  ay  3  ten  the  stand  is,  the  more  single  tree  cases  trier 
are;  there  is  -r.ore  fight,  more  edges,  large  crowns,  poor  cleaning;  but  on 
the  other  hand  there  is  more  eneven  &&&$&&  canopy,  more  windf  irmness,  and 
more  protection. 

stand  becoiACB  even-'^.ed  it  roscrcoles  a  shelterwood:  £&& 
there  is  lean  fir:ht,  and  cleaner  timber, 

]3.  In  ordina"/  r-  \ctice  every  lar^e  tract  and  prop/erty  on 
the  ^election  system  ir?  divided  up  i-       itj'ber  of  pieces;  the  forester 

tea  to  each  I  of        '  of  yerrs  (cutting  return  or 

cutting  cycle).  At  each  cut  he  harvests.  The  reproduction  theoretically 
ractically   .    on  "11  the  tl-- 

e  character  of  the  selection  fore-t  depends  on  the  cutting  cycle 
to  r,  lar^ro  extent,  If  yc     turn  to  I      !  acre  every  10  years,  the 
forest  t      ;he  sh.i  ao  desired  "by  the  foresters  .  If  you  return  every  JO 

'vely,  to>:  sa  on  the  character  of  the 

.  If  i     ;  other  hand  you  cut  heavy  every  ;<0  years  the  forest 

ted  fom  T/hi         .  -raced  the  selection  system  ae 
"iculture,  l»iko  the  cloar  cut  and  the  shelterwood  systems, 

.stera  be  applied  to  l*v    --'id  to  sm3.il  areas, 
bo,,  "-hio\>  nay  modify  the  appearance  of  the  forest.  It  is 
to  ."O.l  kinds  of  forest  because  it  i'.i  a  modification  of  Nature. 
7inanci-ll,y  it  i  o       ;plicille  a«  «i  producer  of  foresc.  It  must  be  used 
for  .     :trie^,  because  it  is  cheap;  the  so?  sons  are  short 

anO          is  very  expensive  •. 

In  hard  -.-ino  and  ot)ier  species  the  selection  fails  because  of 

reduction,  unless  v:e  drift  toward  tlie  clear  cut  system 

t  the  f?i  de. 

•;llectior    '-i.ycteir.   is   ad;-iirn  -le   for  berch,    maple,    and   tolerant 
••Iso   for   "   mixture   of  hardwoods  ff.nct   tolerant    conifers,    as 
.jdel   in   the  'Vild-v-'oods. 


£.  The  ^election  system,  if  used  judiciously,  is  very  safe, 
i    forest  stays,  re.eardlt-ss  of  reproduction.  In  active  prac- 
tice,    ;ver,  the  selection  yyrjtem  drifts  t'      devastation.  The  fores- 

to  cut  sue!  product  a  crop.  !*e  >:co;.>e  on  cutting,  while  the 
re;     .:  tiorj  f-ils  to  make  .^ood  the  loss.  This  ?T.C  the  great  trouble  with 
th«  rrTlectio;-j  pystc-T,.  The  forootor  trusted  to  Providence  to  make  good 

>t  in  or  n-.uch  of  a  hurry  •  £  he;  s-.'-ic  ie  sure,  but  slow.  In 
the  thir  "        ]ic-r.  i:''ie  for^r-t  IF  Tone. 

d,.  Grov'th  in  Volume  ti^.eoreticclly  ie  ,,,!•••;'  t;  there  is  much 
1  i^h  t  ;  1}   crovn  surf  act  is  exposed,  to  li~;ht.  Excellent  si  t  e  pro  t  ec  t  ion 
obtains,  -mo  rlso  th  cri:-  is  constantly  on  the  land,  a^  lar^e  amount  of  grow.- 

t  _•::•  ck  .  Tlier:'.       e  thre^  ecsenti$.ls.  In  practice  it  has  never  been 
proven  that  the  selection  systc-    :  es  more  forest  than  the  other  systems 
It  £.ener.:-l?.y  ;.d,  e.-.,p^ci-  lly  even  .   uropean  otntis- 

tici;  sho-  c?.c  drop  l^Vrind. 

Crov/Ui  in  quality     ,s  is  behind;  this  -.     ^IttecL  even  by  the 
advocate  H  c  f  f-  1  i  a  s  y  &  t  ^,-m  ,  bee  au  f.-  c  : 

ero  ie  r;;uch  fi^lit  between  the-  lar^e  and  small  materials.  Ther 
IE:  rriuch  eclre  bueinesc,  i        -me  spreading  ?.nd  deformed  stuff;  we 
ratr.rd  th€  young  ntuff,  the  ground  cover  is  less  perfect  and  les&  readi- 
ly controlled,      ^ees  are  loo  -  easily  helped  and  help  is  more 

t'?  r»-T  t.Vi  i  e?  n  v«s  t.  p>Tn  . 


171. 


e.  The  nysten  protects  the  cite  an  dees  no  ether  system; 
it  produces  much  mule!:,        ,ood  cover  Benching  right  down  to  the 
ground. 

f  .  Cood    '  nes8  rojocted  the  Shelterwood  system  and  gave 
it  up  in  all  lar^e  enterprises,  especially  Stftte  enterprises,  because: 

(1  •  Thure  ig.  no.  satisfactory.  £2J2l£2i  S*.  p 
42$  "  "    uniTo  :"i.:.  by 

I-;o  *%"j  --.cr.    '.lice 


..         . 

mt    I"  rt  possible.    This  affects 

_ 

(2   -  -.tract:     .      "actory. 

ifficult  and  injurip.us.. 


In  bhia  systo.ii  »vary  large  tree     t  to  oe  separately  inspected 
d  niarkeci  '  sat.lon  . 

....   Plra  in  the  selection  sys- 
:unt  of  hush  stuff  on  the  ground 
to  re  frc          -iti  to  the  to^s. 

ic  less  in  Volume  and  ^uailty, 
(o)  Ihli  ty»1  --ich  c-re,  ^nd  much  knowledge 

en    tV 


^  r  busin<  .?cnuse: 

(l  -  II    o\;ner  -ivc  vi  r. 

(2)   -c   i—ieufc    £?.rid  hae   on  hMiid   n   variety  of    stuff 

,.   ,     vl  CJMA 
.    outlay  at   ^,ny  tine  ior  plant; 

uctiun,    etc.      I  -Ple»    but   is   not 

Bi;  .  to  c,re  of?; 

..ock  C3  .  ,cticed  with  care 

and  sucoess  thi       c  moat  interlsiYe  of  ell  systems.  But  it    posnitol 

e  a  lore.,  i  .  fore    .  «£!^S!  -;na,1fas;  *a*ej. 

th  true  and  falee,  Michigan  hardwcoda  raus^  be  cared  fo 
No  oecsary  for  1          *d  otto          m  the  .^ck.ee.  vhe 

die  v-luc.  t:  ,11,  :        yotcm  IB  practiced 

Ly.  You  can't  clajir  cut  and  plant  extensively;  BUOh  a  system 
ve:  ;2       -  -ust  Le  -;;cll  d     I   I   i:  »«*1  - 


,    tKi   s<;lucL.ion   sycton.   in   :  ;.  :    It  presents   the. 

grc-t  method  fos'our  Pro  -  i*   ^  »**   Acceptable  metho 

3  , 

6)    Socond.'iry  era  a   in   Uio   Seed   Tcreat. 

niefeQ    3y«t«*a   --re   distinct   in   their  final  product  ana  in 

i0r  '^irservTtre*    system   (U...  ,rve    ,eed  tree  method) 

(1)    In   tlv-   clear   cut,    nheltorv/ood   raid    selection   nystei 
intain   treea   or   groups   of   trees  iO    ^rov;   to    a   special   size. 

:-ivei   the   fcrestffor  a  time,  I  o.rance;    it  modi- 

fiea   the    v  .3   and  affect    the   work   of   reproduction. 

(2}    If   orl  -'   c^t    -y  °    uscd»    and   only  a  *£* 

trees   are   left      they  are   rarely  able   to   go   thru   the   entire  rotation,    me 
£e  Ipt  ,    and   are  normally  out;  1O*20  f^^^J^6^ 

sfora    the   removal   doea  too  inucn  damage   to    the  yoiLig   stand. 


(3)  In  the  shelterwood  system  we  merely  leave  the  "best 

trees  for  the  last,  instead  of  the  poorest  for  shelter,   e  may  keep  them 
20-30-40  yenrs,  according  to  circumstances,  vfliere  oak  and  beech  are  used 
in  ciisture,  it  is  common  to  lenve  the  oak  thru  the  second  rotation  of  the 

"b»ech. 

(4)  In  the  selection  system  no  particular  or  special  tree 
is  necessary.  Simply  leave  as  many  of  the  "best  as  you  choose. 

([?'}  The  method  of  reproduction  is  not  modified*  It  may  be 
planting,  seeding,  shelterwood  or  selection* 

(6)  To  be  successful,  the  system  requires  that  the  reserve 
trees  be  vigorous,  that  they  do  not  suffer  by  the  exposure  of  their 
crowns,  that  they  be  windfirm,  and  that  they  be  trees  worth  while.  The 
soil  must  be  kept  in  good  shape  right  along.  This  system  may  not  be  good 
for  hard  oods;  woodlots  frequently  dried  up  and  became  sodded.  Therefore 
the  reserve  tree  system  is  not  as  good  in  connection  with  the  clear  cut 
and  plant  system;  it  is  better  with  the  shelterwood;  it  is  best  with  the 
selection  forest. 

(7)  Advantages  of  the  reserve  tree  system: 

a)  It  raises  only  specially  heavy  sizes.  The  timber 

os  often  great  and  means  money.  In  Europe  it  may  change  the  value  of  tim- 
ber from  12/  to  !{#  per  cubic  foot,  a  change  of  3X  P®**  <*u.  ft.  o*  25#* 
which  is  good  business. 

Disadvantages  of  the  reserve  tree  system: 

a)  The  reserve  treesafeade  the  young  stuff,  and  prevent 
them  from  growing  around  the  foot  of  the  reserve  trees. 

b)  The  logging  of  the  reserve  stuff  means  breaking 
down  the  young  stuff. 

c)  The  timber  often  blows  down  all  the  time,  making 
logging  out  constantly  necessary  all  the  time. 

(8)  In  seeding  from  the  side,  the  reserve  tree  method  has 
an  additional  advantage  in  so  far  as  the  reserve  tree  performs  two 
distinct  functions: 

a)  It  seeds  the  land. 

b)  Sxtra  growth  of  timber  of  reserve  trees  is  obtained. 

b.  Two-storied  Forest. 

(1)  In  south  German  oak  forests  they  start  a  dense  oak 

forest  by  artificial  seeding  in  rows  or  drills;  they  thin  early  and  often 
According  to  the  species  and  at  50  years  of  age  they  underplant  with 
beech.  Thus  the  beech  grows  up  under  and  into  the  oak  and  is  handled  on 
the  shelterwood  plan.  It  reproduces  at  80-120  years  and  a  second  genera- 
tion of  beech  comes  up  under  the  oak.  All  this  time  the  oak  is  protected 
against  the  beech,  and  is  treated  as  the  preferred  stand  or  final  crop. 
Thus  the  oak  normally  goes  thru  two  or  three  generations  of  beech,  and 
finally  the  beech  and  oak  are  completely  harvested  and  a  new  stand  of  oak 
is  started. 

(2)  Ordinary  form:  Seebach's  Form  of  two- story  Forest:  this 
consists  of  a  stand  of  beech  or  other  hardwoods,  which  is  opened  up  at 
the  age  of  20  to  60  years  and  is  underplant ed  with  beech  or  some  other 
tolerant  species*  After  the  underplanting  there  are  two  forms  of  treat- 
ment possible: 


tc 


173- 


a)  The  lower  story  is  left  to  shift  for  itself.  It 
receives  no  care.  The  uppee  story  grows  rapidly,  closes  up  the  openings, 

and  practically  kills  the  lower  story  out  by  the  end  of  the  rotation. 

&4  Advantage:  rapid  growth  in  the  upper  story  is  ob- 
tained and  therefore  a  shorter  rotation  is  &&&&&&  possible;  there  is  good 
protection  of  the  site  by  the  upper  story  and  a  large  amount  of  firewood 
is  obtainable  from  the  upper  story,  This  form  of  forest  is  especially 
good  for  pine  for  improving  the  site, 

b)  The  upper  story  may  be  thinned  out  to  make  room  for 
the  under  story  trees.  Both  stories  are  thus  oared  for  together. 

In  either  case  there  is  always  a  definite  end  of  the  rotation. 
Vfoen  the  upper  story  matures,  both  stories  are  cleared  off, 

£.  Method  of  Light  Accretion  or  Accretion  Cutting. 

The  Forest  Service  definition  of  an  accretion  cutting 

(or  accretion  thinning)  is:  n  thinning  made  specif ically  to  increase  the 
rate  of  growth  in  diameter  of  the  trees  which  are  left  standing, 

(1)  The  accretion  cut  is  an  accessory  enterprise  in  the 

clear  cut  and  shelterwood  systems  tenon  it  is  used  at  all.  It  occurs  to  a 
leas  extent  in  the  selection  system.  It  means  a  specially  severe  thinning; 
and  is  often  classed  as  a  thinning  method  rather  than  as  a  Silvicultural 
system,  as  is  indicated  in  the  above  definition.  That  is  the  better  term. 
The  stand  is  opened  beyond  the  point  of  further  closing.  The  accretion 
cut  gives  openings  which  are  beyond  the  maximum  closing  by  the  stand. 

(2)  As  in  the  reserve  tree  system,  the  site  must  be  cared 
for  by  underplantirig.  In  case  the  remaining  stand, after  an  accretion  cut, 
consists  of  but  few  tree  per  acre,  the  method  practically  becomes  the 
reserve  tree  method. 

(3)  The  accretion  cut  means  greater  growth,  fewer  trees, 
and  therefore  a  larger  size  of  timber  obtained,  and  a  shorter  rotation 
is  possible. 

Hote:  These  extra  methods:  two- story,  accretion  cutting,  etc.,  are 
not  common;  they  are  not  much  used  except  in  pine.  They  are  promising  for 
valuable  forests  of  large  sized  timber. 

The  Germane  give  the  Accretion  Cut  two  names: 

1)  Lichtungsauwacha:  opening  for  growth. 

2)  Lichtungsbetrieb:  opening  the  way  of  management. 
These  are  different  meanings  for  the  same  system. 

These  secondary  systems  are  not  so  much  systems  of  reproduction 
ae  they  are  systems  of  caring  for  the  forest.  They  apply  more  to  older 
stands  which  are  nearing  maturity. 

7)  Coppice  System, 

a..  The  coppice  system  has  a  great  variety  of  forms  according 
to  the  tirnber~rai0ed  and  the  object  in  view. 
Timber:  short  rotations. 
Eucalyptus I  firewood  system. 
Others  for  shelter-belts  and  wind-breaks. 
Others  for  tanbark;  willows  for  baskets,  etc. 


174. 


Ordinarily  the  stand  is  cut  clear:  the  aprouts  come  principally 
from  the  stump,  always  a  number  of  them  for  each  stump.  Some  get  ahead 
and  suppress  the  re.it.  There  is  rapid  growth,  6  to  b  feet  in  one  season, 
even  12  feet.  Therefore  in  the  first  year  there  is  a  stand  of  bushy  appea 
ranee.  Thus  the  soil  is  not  exposed.  The  stand  goes  up  in  the  air  rapid- 
ly, the  trees  growing  in  clumpa  of  3  to  5;  therefore  the  crowns  are  unsy- 
metrical  and  one-sided,  and,  also,  the  trunks  are  bent  toward  the  light. 
Cleaning  is  always  variaMe.  There  is  more  cleaning  in  tolerant  species. 
Rapid  growth  end  early,  the  old  stump  decays  away,  and  the  sprouts  may 
or  may  not  suffer. 

The  sprout  stand  is  distinctly  even~aged.  The  rotation  is  short, 
the  thinnings  are  restricted,  and  severe,  vtoere  a  long  rotation  is  used, 
the  tops  "become  long,  some  seed  is  produced,  and  seedlings  start  up.  This 
frequently  happens  in  chestnut. 

A  modification  of  the  coppice  is  used  in  France  and  southern  l£u- 
rope:  two  cuts  are  made;  the  first  cut  is  for  the  best  timber,  leaving 
the  rest  to  grow,  and  new  sprouts  also  come  in.  Object:  the  soil  is  pro- 
tected from  dying  out. 

jo.ju  The  coppice  is  the  safest  of  all  the  systems  we  have.  We 
know  its  effect  on  site.  It  occurs  under  thriving  conditions.  The  fact 
of  its  safety  shows  itself  in  that  the  reproduction  is  safe;  there  is 
no  risk  of  cutting  clear  and  having  no  reproduction  for  a  time. 

b.  The  coppice  is  applicable  to  but  few  of  the  conifers;  the 
redwood  is  the"  only  good  conifer  in  tno  United  states.  Shortleaf  pine  is 
not      >uter.  The  Japanese  Cryptoraaria  is  a  good  sprouter,  it  must  have 
a  mild  climate,  good  for  grapes,  and  good  soil,  '-/e  can  often  use  overflow 
bottoms,  wet  lands,  and  gully,  rocky,  and  shallow  soils,  according  to 
the  species.  Coppice  is  good  for  a  soil  binder. 

d..  The  volume  growth  is  very  great  from  the  start,  therefore 
the  growth  of  the  ten  years  after  reproduction  may  be  ten  times  as  great 
s  that  of  se  dlings  produced. 

The  quality  growth  also  is  rapid;  the  trees  are  slimmer;  most  cop- 
rice  does  not  make  saw  timber.  The  heartwood  has  a  variety  of  uses.  It 
is  very  useful  stuff:  poles,  handles,  posts,  ties,  firewood,  etc. 

£.  Coppice  is  restricted  to  good  soils.  A  short  rotation 
takes  off  more  young  stuff  and  exhausts  the  soil.  The  stand  opens  because 
of  intolerant  species  and  is  not  sufficiently  cared  for,  therefore  the 
soil  is  apt  to  dry  out,  tho  this  is  a  necessary  part  of  the  system.  There 
is  good  reproduction  and  it  ought  to  have  good  protection  of  the  site. 

jT.  Ordinary  business  rejects  coppice  systems  in  large  enter- 
prises, as  State,  etc.,  because: 

(1)  Coppice  needs  good  land.  (Agricultural) 
J2)  It  raises  poor  cheap  stuff  which  is  not  acceptable 
to  the  general  market. 

(3)  It  yields  a  small  gross  income  per  acre  per  year. 

(4)  The  stand  easily  depreciates;  there  is  a  tendency  to 
overcut  the  stand. 

(5)  The  coppice  system  is  unable  to  serve  most  of  the 

important  forest  species  and  sites.  The  most  important  forest  species  are 
the  conifers,  which  are  not  served  by  this  system. 


175- 


On  the  other  hand,  the  coppice  system  is  recommended,  because: 

(1)  A  small  capital  only  is  needed,  the  returns  are  fre- 
quent, and  therefore  it  leads  to  a  big  industry. 

(2)  There  are  few  dangers  in  a  stand  of  this  kind. 


of  stuff. 


3)  It  affords  simple,  cheap  handling. 

4)  It  allows  simple  harvesting,  by  clear  cutting,  etc. 
(5J  It  may  be  used  as  a  method  for  raising  particular  kind* 


£.  The  3tate  always  will  be  more  or  less  interested  in  the 
coppice  system: 

(1)  It  is  good  for  the  fc&AJcJb  small  man. 

(2)  It  provides  local  people  with  small  timber,  which  is 
nevertheless  necessary  for  the  locality. 

(3)  It  takes  possession  of  sites  and  protects  them  against 
erosion. 

(4)  It  is  adapted  to  grazing  uses,  particularly  sheep  on 
grass  lands.  It  can  be  alternated  with  agriculture. 

8)  Coppice  Standards  or  Standard  Coppice. 

This  has  also  bcsen  called  Composite  Coppice. 
&.  Standard  Coppice  may  be  illustrated  by  a  concrete  case: 
Assume  a  standard  of  different  species.  Suppose  we  have  100  acres  of  beed 
or  maple;  make  an  annual  cut  of  5  acres,  or  a  20-year  rotation.  After 
each  cut  plant  in  on  that  area  20  pine  seedlings  (or  locust,  etc.).  Say 
the  first  cut  is  in  1912;  this  is  a  5~acre  cut;  plant  in  twenty  3-year 
old  pine  seedlings  or  transplants.  Then  the  same  5  acres  will  be  cut  again 
in  1932,  and  now  we  will  have  a  stand  of  20-year  pines  plus  29  new  seed- 
lings. Thus  we  will  have  in: 

1952:  20  of  the  40-year  pines 
20  of  the  20-year  pines 
20  new  seedlings 

and  therefore  in  2  coppice  rotations  we  will  have  60  pines  on  that  5-a°re 
area.  Thru  another  rotation: 

1972:  20  of  the  60-year  old  pines 
20  of  the  40-year  old  pines 
20  of  the  20-year  old  pines 
20  new  seedling 

This  gives  us  a  stand  of  60  trees  varying  from  20  to  60  years  of 
age.  These  then  are  the  standards.  If  the  pine  were  cut  on  a  60  year  ro- 
tation we  would  plant  first  in  1912  and  cut  in  1972,  and  plant  new  pines 
right  along  addition  to  the  coppice  till  it  is  exhausted. 

(in) 

To  show  how  much  area  standards  take  up  we  may  refer  to  the  follow- 
ing figures: 

20-year  pines  need  80  sq.yds.  each 
40-ye^r  pines  need  180  sq.yds 


20 
20 

2 


each 


60-year  pines  need  J20  sq.yds.  each 

pines  need  580  sq.yds.  on  5  acres,  or  1/8  A. 


Therefore  in  this  illustration  1/8  acres  is  actually  covered  by 
the  standards,  out  of  an  area  of  5  acres.  Thus  practically  4  7/8  acres 
are  left  for  coppice  and  others.  The  standards  grow  open  and  above  the 
coppice  and  therefore  develop  larger  crowns  than  in  normal  woods.  There 
are  here  60  standards  in  three  age  classes. 

£.  Variations  of  this  method  are  possible  according  to  the 
individual  id*eas.  There  are  gradations  between  straight  coppice  and  tim- 
ber. 


176. 


Some  of  the  common  forms  of  standard  coppice  follow:  the  standards 
may  be  a  part  of  the  coppice;  the  standards  may  be  of  a  more  tolerant 
species;  the  standards  may  be  intolerant  and  the  coppice  tolerant,  in 
which  case  we  can  use  more  standards  without  hurting  the  coppice.  This  is 
better  than  having  to  use  more  coppice,  which  may  hurt  the  standards. 

The  French  and  Germans  make  a  specialty  of  standard  coppice,  and 
frequently  cut  in  20-40  year  rotations.  They  often  produce  two  distinct 
stands  on  the  ground.  The  standards  may  be  of  one  or  several  age  classes. 

Disadvantage  of  standard  coppice:  The  upper  story  of  the  standards 
is  too  open,  the  trees  get  limby;  the  lower  story  is  held  back  by  the 
standards.  In  spite  of  this  limbiness  the  standards  are  long-lived,  and 
healthy  because  they  get  much  light . 

The  standards  in  high  forest  are  flifferent.  They  are  exceptionally 
good  trees  which  have  been  left.  They  grew  in  a  closed  stand;  on  opening 
up  the  stand  we  may  have  Jrrouble.  In  standard  coppice  the  trees  grow  up 
in  constant  conditions:  there  is  no  sudden  change,  and  therefore  there  is 
better  health. 

£.  The  standard  coppice  is  as  safe  as  the  ordinary  coppice 
but  in  practice  it  needs  more  care  and  knowledge.  It  is  apt  to  go  back 
to  straight  coppice.  There  is  a  tendency  to  abuse  it  just  because  it  is 
safe. 

el.  The  volume  and  quality  growth  is  large;  it  is  even  claimed 
to  beat  that  of  the  even-aged  stand.  A  high  quality  of  timber  and  a  large 
amount  of  smaller  stuff  is  obtained,  but  this  never  compares  with  spruce, 
balsam  and  pine  in  the  amount  of  medium  sized  shapely  building  and  saw 
timber.  In  practice  it  is  sure  to  get  limby. 

£.  The  standard  coppice  system  may  change  the  wite  well;  &&£• 
there  is  nothing  better  if  well  handled. 

jT.  Business  reasons  for  rejecting  this  system: 

(1)  All  the  same  reasons  as  with  ordinary  coppice  (page 
tho  better. crop  and  money  is  obtained  if  it  is  good. 

(2)  It  requires  greater  care  because  every  standard  needs 
watching. 

(3)  It  is  liable  to  injury  from  exposure  in  open  stand 
conditions . 

4)  There  is  danger  of  many  water-sprouts  in  oak,  etc. 

5)  There  is  danger  of  aun-scald  in  beech,  because  of  its 
thin  bark,  dry  tops,  etc. 

Business  reasons  in  favor  of  standard  coppice: 

1)  All  the  good  points  of  the  ordinary  coppice  (p.l?5)- 

2)  It  produces  a  certain  amount  of  large  timber  in  good 
condition. 

It  gives  a  larger  yield  per  acre  per  year  for  the  money 
It  pilows  a  production  of  conifers  and  hardwoods  on 
the  same  land. 


177. 


JJ.  Choice  of  Systems. 

a.  Matter  of  species  dealt  with. 
Site  conditions. 

c.  Safety  and  dangers,  including  characters  under  species  an< 

site,  "biotic  factors,  etc. 

d.  Reproduction  or  hard,  etc. 

e".  Objects  of  the  business,  Public  Forests,  etc. 
7.  Intensity  of  the  enterprise. 

Amount  of  capital 

Labor  necessary  or  available 
£.  Secondary  uses  of  the  forest. 

a.  ratter  of  the  species  dealt  with. 

1)  Certain  species,  as  roost  conifers,  exclude  the  use 

coppice  or  standard  coppice  in  the  woods  on  account  of  the  nature  of  the 
species.  Certain  other  species  practically  demand  the  coppiceL  willow, 
alder,  chestnut,  catalpa,  black  locust  and  euaalyptus.  This  is  probably 
the  best  and  easiest  method  to  use  here. 

2)  Hard  pines,  tamarack,  cypress,  oak,  walnut,  hickory,  and 
most  of  the  intolerant  species  do  not  make  a  satisfactory  selection,  for- 

and  so  the  choice  here  is  limited  to  a  few  species.  These  species 
tend  to  open  m>  and  the  stand  opens  up.  A  selection  stand  requires  a 
tolernnt  species  mixed  with  an  intolerant  species.  The  above  named  specie 
usually  need  different  systems. 

3)  Hemlock,  balsam,  and  beech  have  a  dislike  for  the  clear 
cut  system,  and  so  we  cannot  use  this  system  fot  these  species  unless  the; 
are  very  small.  They  are  good  for  the  selection  and  shelterwood  systems. 

4)  Hard  pines,  tamarack  and  intolerant  species  are  not  able 
to  hold  out  as  seedlings  under  the  mother  trees  and  so  are  gJl^tiiL™* 
satisfactory  in  shelterwood.  SU»  **&  &&  &^A  *&  ***&&&  M  M*  ***£**?** 
They  are  shut  out  from  the  two  systems  of  selection  and  shelterwood,  but 
can  be  used  under  the  clear  cut  system. 

5)  All  seeded  trees,  as  hardwoods,  are  of  no  use  in  natural 
reproduction  by  seeding  in  from  the  side. 

6)  In  general:  the  species  is  the  first  consideration  in 
determining  the  method  of  treatment. 

b.  Site  conditions. 

'  Site  conditions  limit  the  species  in  their  possibilities. 
They  affect  the  distribution  of  speoles,  etc.,  and  thus  affect  the  syste] 

1)  On  poor  lands  we  usually  use  only  pine  and  therefore  onl} 
the  systems  suited  to  pine,  or  the  clear  cut  with  natural  or  artificial 
reproduction.  This  is  very  useful  on  poor  sites,  as  sandy  lands. 

2)  Swamp  lands  have  peculiar  species:  tamarack  and  cedar  in 
northern  swamps  and  cypress  in  the  south.  Some  black  spruce  and  ash  oc 
-urs  on  the  edges.  The  intolerant  tamarack  and  cedar  are  not  for  the 
lection  and  shelterwood  systems,  but  include  the  jtse  of  seeding  from  the 
side  methods:  strip,  seed  tree,  or  clenr  cut  methods. 

3)  In  Northern  countries  (N.  Canada,  N.  New  JSngland),  and 
high  altitudes  we  are  limited  to  spruce  and  therefore  to  the  syste] 


able  to  spruce  and  similar  species.  The  selection  and  shelterwood  sys- 
tems are  especially  good  for  high  mountains.  It  is  impossible  to  seed  in 
from  the  side. 

4)  Many  of  the  higher  ridges  in  the  Kockies  exclude  the 
Yellow  pine  and  take  the  lodgepole  pine,  which  is  very  intolerant. 

5)  Good  moist  soil  and  mild  climate  take  any  system.  On 
poor  land,  even  in  a  mild  climate,  use  a  system  that  will  keep  up  the 
site.  Compare  timber  and  seed  trees  versus  coppice.  The  selection  ss  best. 

6)  Sand  in  the  Southerribinery  excludes  the  hardwoods  and 
white  pine  because  of  the  soil  and  site  together.  Hard  pines  and  their 
systems  are  used  here. 

7)  Dry  situations,  as  yellow  pine  in  the  west,  need  to  keep 
moisture  in  the  soil,  therefore  the  clear  cut  system  would  not  be  used 
here.  The  shelterwood  system  is  particularly  applicable,  and  is  much  used 
by  the  Forest  Service. 

8)  On  steep  slopes  and  soils  which  wash  easily  and  gully, 
the  clear  cut  system  is  risky.  The  selection  system  is  best. 

9)  In  general:  follow  Nature  wherever  the  site  is  difficult, 
whether  in  climate  6r  in  soil,  topography  or  even  bad  biotic  factors 

and  competition  of  animals  (insects).  Insects  stopped  the  use  of  the  ta- 
marack, because  of  the  tamarack  saw-fly.  The  black  locust  borer  made  it 
almost  impossible  to  have  any  success  in  planting  black  locust.  These  are 
treated  as  distinct  dangers,  not  as  part  of  the  site. 

£.  Choice  affected  by  safety  and  dangers. 

1)  Safety  from  theft  is  not  considered  in  this  connection, 
but  even  here  there  is  some  difference  in  the  systems.  The  selection  is 
easy  to  stepl  from. 

2)  Safety  from  fire.  In  the  hardwood  district  there  are  many 
possibilities;  there  is  less  danger  than  in  conifers,  and  you  can  use 
almost  any  system  you  desire.  It  is  claimed  that  the  coppice  system  is 
Ic-st  dangerous.  It  is  simply  a  part  of  the  larger  hardwood  feature. 

An  even-aged  otand  should  be  in  small  bodies,  then  the  fire  will 
not  spread.  The  young  stuff  is  in  danger;  it  is  drier,  the  crown  is  close 
to  the  ground  and  the  fire  spreads  to  a  top  fore.  The  stand  is  more  jam- 
med. 

In  a  coniferous  district  there  is  only  one  choice  between  an  even- 
aged  and  a  many-aged  stand:  the  even-aged  stand  in  small  bodies  is  safer 
than  the  many-aged  stand.  Yellow  pine  in  the  southwest  or  in  the  southern 
pinery  at  40  years  of  age  is  safe.  A  ground  fire  does  not  hurt  these  trees 
In  Colorado  fire  can  be  used  safely  at  any  time. 

3)  Safety  from  storms,  snow,  etc.  Coppice  is  the  best,  then 
the  selection  system,  then  the  even-aged  stand.  The  shelterwood  is  worse 
than  the  clearcut,  as  the  trees  which  have  been  closed  up  are  exposed  and 
tend  to  be  wind-blown.  It  is  good  for  timber  to  be  in  small  bodies  or  in 
compartments.  Avoid  lines  making  the  mature  cutting  stuff  face  the  wind. 
This  is  bad,  especially  in  3  ruce,  particularly  in  the  prevailing  winds. 


179- 


4)  Safety  from  snow  damage.  All  dense  stands,  and  tall  and 
slender  saplings,  suffer  regardless  of  the  system  used,  so  that  protec- 
tion from  this  danger  is  chiefly  a  matter  of  spacing  to  make  the  trees 
resistant  and  become  stiff. 

5)  Frost  hurts  mostly  in  reproduction.  The  shelterwood  is 
best  for  the  protection  of  young  stands;  the  selection  system  also  is 
good.  The  clear  cut  system  is  not  good,  iilven  coppice  is  bad  with  some 

s  ecies. 

6)  Insects  attack  all  kinds  of  timber  regardless  of  system. 
They  are  worse  in  conifers  than  in  hardwoods,  and  in  the  pure  forest  than 
in  mixed  forest  because  each  insect  has  its  pet  species,  and  takes  the 
whole  stand.  This  is  not  so  bad  in  a  mixed  stand. 

The  site  tells  whether  to  use  a  pure  forest.  Most  of  these  stands 
are  pure  sind  so  tun  right  into  danger.  We  have  the  choice  of  the  clear 
cut,  shelterwood  and  selection  systems.  Large  areas  of  young  trees  and 
large  bodies  of  old  trees  are  more  attacked.  To  avoid  these  conditions 
use  the  selection  or  clear  cut  systems  with  the  timber  in  small  bodies. 
The  greatest  damage  is  done  to  reproduction  and  to  over-mature  stands. 


,U  C.BERKELEY  LIB 


M740389 


SD391 

R52 

Forestry 


